PILGRIMS, PIONEERS & ALIENS

Oh, my ... I've heard that dozens of times, but I'm here to tell you ....just because it's in the census, it is NOT a proven fact. This month we'll talk about the U.S. Federal census:

• What Is A Census?
• What's In The Federal Census?
• Is The Census Indexed?
• Where Can I Find The Census?
• What Do I Do With Census Information?
• Cautions and hints for making census research more productive
• Census 2000

I personally enjoy the census! I find scrolling through those rolls of microfilm fascinating (even if sometimes frustrating). I use the index to find the most likely county/township for my target family, then read the entire township (at least) to look for other relatives. It takes time and patience, but the rewards are WELL worth the time. It is sometimes possible to put together several generations of families through this technique.

I have also gleaned some great leads from the pages of the census. Note that I say LEADS, and that's precisely how I use them. The information in the census is secondary, not primary evidence. That is, it is not information provided by a witness to the event at the time of the event for a purpose related to the event. (See the Pilgrims, Pioneers & Aliens column from August 1999 "Who Says So?" regarding primary and secondary evidence.) When you find a clue such as an age, place of birth, naturalization date, etc., follow up to find the primary sources. Don't stop with just the census information.

Note, however, that in some circumstances, census records have been used as acceptable legal substitutes for other records - for example, the 1880 census was indexed via Soundex for families with children under 10 so that those who were eligible for Social Security when it was legislated in 1935 could use that as documentation of age (if they were 10 in 1880, they were 55 in 1935). Since vital records registration did not begin in many areas of the United States until much later (sometimes as late as the 1920s), the census is the only "official" government document with documentation of age.

To protect the privacy of living persons, in the 1950s the U.S. enacted a law prohibiting release of the census information for 72 years (the average lifespan of a U.S. resident at that time). Thus the 1930 census will be released in 2002.

Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary (Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1989, page 220), defines census as follows:

(1) a count of the population and a property evaluation in early Rome; (2) a usu. complete enumeration of a population; specif: a periodic governmental enumeration of population; (3) count, tally.

Censuses have been taken by governments for centuries (in fact, for millenia - now that we all know what that means!). References to the census are even found in the Bible. The new United States Congress authorized the decennial (every ten years) federal census by legislation on 1 March 1790. The census was needed to establish the population count in the various states in order to apportion representatives in Congress. The Bureau of the Census was established in 1902 under the Department of the Interior, but moved shortly after to the Department of Commerce, where it remains today. For the purposes of this article, we'll talk specifically about the U.S. federal census.

A few other definitions to help as we go along (also from Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary, Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1989):

• Apportion - to make a proportionate division or distribution of; esp the referring to the apportionment of representatives or taxes among the states according to U.S. law.
• Decennial - occurring or being done every 10 years.
• Enumeration - ascertaining the number of; counting.
• Enumerator - one that enumerates; esp. a census taker.
• Millenium (plural=millenia) - a period of 1000 years; a 1000^th anniversary or its celebration.
• Population - the whole number of people or inhabitants in a country or region.

The information included in the census has changed each time it has been taken, gathering more detailed information on each household. The following table shows the basic information included in each census available to date:

Census records are arranged by census year, state, then county (with a few exceptions). There may be several small counties on one roll, or there may be several rolls for one heavily-populated county (particularly urban areas).

From 1830-1880 it was required that the census-taker make additional copies of the enumeration. Since there were no copy machines, that meant manually copying every entry (twice when three copies were required). This obviously increased the opportunity for errors. The good news is, in some cases one or more of these additional copies exists. One was filed with the clerk of the county court and one was sent to the state or territory, with the "original" sent to the U.S. Census Office. So if you have an illegible copy, check with the state or county archives to find out if their copy is still available (only a few early ones are, but it's worth checking). If so, the writing may be different (sometimes the wife or children helped with the copying), or the missing entry may be complete.

Printed, microform, and CD-ROM indexes are available for 1790-1850 for nearly all states; many are available for 1860-1870 as well; partial Soundex (only those families with children under 10) for 1880, Miracode for 1900; Miracode/soundex for 21 states (which did not have state-wide vital registration) for 1910; soundex for 1920.

The census index for the appropriate state (or states) should be the first step in a census search. Identify all potential matches for the name, particularly if the county of residence is unknown. Record all information given. When using the soundex or miracode indexes, more information is given, and it should all be recorded. The specific information given for location is especially useful When the census page has been located, checking it against the soundex may give clues to spelling that the indexer was able to interpret due to experience in dealing with a particular census-taker. DO NOT STOP WITH THE INDEX!

The Miracode and soundex systems are very similar (names are coded in the same way - only the cards given the reference to the actual census are slightly different). The indexes are microfilms of the cards, sorted by state, then soundex code, then given name.

The code consists of a letter and three numbers. The letter is the first letter of the surname. The numbers are determined by the following chart:

A, E, I, O, U, W, Y, and H are disregarded. When letters having the same number equivalent appear twice in succession, the code number is used only once. If a vowel separates the two letters, however, it is used twice. For example: LENNON would be L550 (one 5 for the first 2 Ns, 5 for the last N, and zero to fill out the code), while LINN would be L500. If not enough consonant codes are obtained, the remaining three numbers are filled with zeros.

When the soundex/miracode cards were alphabetized, they were grouped by code, then alphabetized by GIVEN name. Thus in the S530 section one might find the following (in this order):

• SMITH, Abraham
• SMYTHE, Alexander
• SNITTY, Andrew
• SMITH, Angela

Note: You may find religious order members coded with "Sister" and "Brother" as the surname, so they are found under code S236 or B636. Names with prefixes are sometimes found without the prefix, so look for VonSwearingen under both V526 and S652 or DeLamater under D453 and L536.

Don't stop with the soundex!!!! There's much more to be gleaned from the census record. Neighbors, editorial notes by the census taker, mis-interpretations by the Soundex indexer, etc.

The official repository for the census is the National Archives and Records Administration. The Archives holds microfilm copies of every federal census in existence, plus the official Soundex or Miracode indexes in Washington and all branches. The Family History Library of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Salt Lake City has copies, which are available through local Family History Centers. Many other private and public libraries have microfilm for the states in their area. Local societies have often obtained the census for their particular area, or at least have created indexes for many years. (Some of these may even have them available through inter-library loan). Large genealogical libraries often have extensive collections of census films. For example, the Western Reserve Historical Society Library in Cleveland, OH, has all available population schedules, plus most soundex and miracode indexes - for all states. They have already started fund-raising to purchase the 1930 census which will be released in 2002.

The census films may also be purchased directly from the National Archives or through Heritage Quest (see web site information in the Further Reading section at the end of this article).

The newest method of obtaining census records is the CD-ROM series by Heritage Quest, which is now available for all available states for 1790-1850; 1870; 1900. These CDs contain digitized copies of each page, fully searchable. Pages can be enhanced, enlarged, and printed (in total or in sections). Each CD corresponds to one roll of NARA microfilm. See the resources at the end of this article for their web site.

The U.S. Genweb Archives Census Project is making census images available through the Internet. Pages are uploaded as .GIF files. These are not searchable, but may be viewed page by page for the given area. Check the web site listed under Further Reading below to see if your area is available yet. [And don't forget to volunteer to help if you can!]

• Consult the original schedules. Using an index or abstract is handy, but misses many important clues - next door neighbors often were or became relatives; spelling variations.
• First, record EVERYTHING you find. There are many census abstraction forms available to make this task easier. At the end of this article are a few sources for such forms, but there are MANY more sources. Find one you like and USE it! I like using a form because it reminds me to record all of the information I need later. I look for a form that gives me a place to record all of the location and citation information (not just township, county and state, but enumeration district, microfilm reel, enumerator, date of actual enumeration, condition/legibility of the record, and repository). When you find something, you might get excited and forget something!!
• Copy the information EXACTLY as written. If it was abbreviated, copy it that way. If Lily is recorded as Loly .... write it that way. There may be a reason, or it may be an error. Either way, when you cite that census, be sure to include that "mis-spelling".
• If your family is at the bottom or top of the page, be sure to check that they are not continued to/from another page.
• Make a copy of the page, if possible. As you are analyzing the information, it is often helpful to go back to the census and look again, just to be sure you recorded it properly.
• Analyze the information in the context of other sources. Follow-up on new leads obtained to validate the information from the census. Review conflicting information to determine the best way to verify.
• Work your way back through the census years, keeping a record of where you have searched for each family in each year. (You don't want to look the same place again). For example, I have one family that I am still seeking in 1900. I have (so far) looked in 16 counties in 8 states. I have a list of the places I've looked, and I expand the search periodically. I know "papa" had wandering feet, so I haven't given up. I checked those 8 states because I know he had children born in all of them, and as they got old enough to be on their own (14 or so), they stayed where they lived then - the descendants of these 12 families are now spread from Iowa to California!

• Prior to 1830, each enumerator had to provide his own paper and mark the columns himself. Beginning in 1830, the government provided forms to be used, making data collection more consistent.
• Remember that the census is only as accurate as the person giving the information and the person recording it. The census-takers (particularly in the earliest years) were appointed and may or may not have been the most qualified person around. (If you've looked at many census films, you know that good penmanship was NOT a pre-requisite). The pay was low, and often barely covered expenses.
• If the census-taker was interviewing a foreign-born family, he might have had trouble figuring out exactly how to spell the name, or even understanding what they were answering for other questions. They did the best they could, but recognize that "spelling is optional" in the census even more than other documents you may encounter. The first letter could even be incorrect, so when checking soundex records, check all possibilities. Pronounce the name and visualize all the possible spellings or interpretations, then check them all.
• Sometimes the census-taker encountered a number of people (or families) with the same basic information, so he used some form of "ditto" to indicate they were all the same. Occasionally this led to information being attributed to the wrong line... an occupation might be marked as "ditto" for five lines instead of four, indicating one more farmer in the family, or birth in the wrong place. This happened particularly in ethnic neighborhoods where, for example, MOST were from Prussia, but there was one lone Russian family in the middle. They might be recorded as Prussia as well. Remember to corroborate everything in the census.
• Many people (particularly recent immigrants) were reluctant to disclose personal information to government officials. Misunderstanding of the purpose of the census and historical abuses in the "old country", made many distrustful of anyone inquiring about their family. Even though there has always been a fine for refusing to answer or answering untruthfully, this has rarely been prosecuted.
• In many areas the boundaries have changed over time. To find out the county where your particular area was in each census, refer to the Map Guide to the U.S. Federal Censuses, 1790-1920, by Thorndale and Dollarhide (see complete citation under Further Reading below). This is a wonderful resource for determining the changes in counties over time. Even a tiny change in the corner of a county can make a big difference. It also helps to see which other counties adjoin, in case they are not found where expected. My ancestors always seemed to live in the corner where four counties adjoined, and jumped back and forth for every life event! There is also a Township Atlas of the United States, compiled by Jay Andriot (see complete citation under Further Reading below). This wonderful volume shows the specific townships in each county for the entire country, and can be a great help in pinpointing other locations when they lived on the edge of a township!
• Just because they are not found in the index doesn't mean they aren't on the census. If the person or family is not found in the index, look for known neighbors or other family members, then "browse" the neighborhood. The indexer may have mis-read the name.
• Even though the census takers were instructed to include only those people who were actually in the household as of the "official" enumeration date (sometimes months earlier), some people did slip through. For example, children born after the official date might have been counted, and people who had died after the date might have been missed.
• Also remember that since the census was taken based on a specific date, some families were missed because they were moving. For example, if enumeration day was June 1, the "old" location may have visited on June 15, while the new location visited on June 10. If they moved on June 12, they would be missed! And, of course, the reverse may be true. If the old location was visited on June 10 and the new on June 15, they MIGHT be enumerated twice (unless the "new" location census-taker was following instructions carefully).
• Read the preface of an index to find out what it includes and how it handles page numbers and unclear names.
• Be particularly careful in listing information on "other" people residing in the household (don't miss anything!). If they have a different surname, they COULD be just boarders or employees, but they are often relatives (sometimes in addition to boarders or employees). These people are sometimes worth the effort to track down. I've recently run across a young woman named Huldah MacMurray who appeared in the household of the widow of my ancestor Aaron Crisman (his THIRD wife, Sarah), listed as "daughter-in-law" with the "-in-law" crossed out. Aaron's FIRST wife (and mother of my ancestor) was Cecilia MacMurray ... It may be coincidence, but I believe Huldah is a niece, and may lead me to a brother of my great-great grandmother. (Widow Sarah apparently couldn't figure out how to describe the relationship to the census-taker).
• There are often at least two page numbers - one written by the census-taker; another stamped when the pages were bound. The stamped number is USUALLY the one indexed. But if you don't find it there, try the other number!
• Use the census to lead to other resources. For example, don't overlook the Farm Schedules - they will lead to information about the holdings of the family, as well as more information on the neighbors. If the column for "naturalization" has information, seek out those papers.
• First and foremost... remember that the census taker may have gotten the information from a child, a boarder, the farmhand or housekeeper, or even a neighbor (particularly in hard-to-reach areas). If the names are a little off or the ages don't quite make sense from one year to another, don't despair - you need to validate in other sources anyway.
• When the census-taker's writing is difficult to interpret, review several pages to try to find similarities in more recognizable names (if you can't tell whether the name is Lemuel or Samuel, try looking for a Lawrence or Smith in the same handwriting ... that should help determine whether the initial letter is an L or an S).
• When the microfilm is hard to distinguish, try using a sheet of colored paper under the image (or a piece of colored transparency film over the screen or copy). Try different colors to see if one makes the contrast more obvious (green, yellow, pink, and sometimes blue seem to work well for me).
• Make a copy of the page, reducing or enlarging to make it more readable. Odd as it may seem, sometimes reducing makes the letters "hold together" better, so when viewed through a magnifying glass they can be interpreted.
• Read the end of each section (township) and county for any notes made by the enumerator or supervisor. Sometimes families that were missed in sequence are added at the end, or an explanation may give the location of others enumerated in an adjoining jurisdiction by error or intent.
• Record ten families before and after yours. If you have easy access to the census later, recording the names, ages, and birthplace may be enough for now. These will often provide links to current or future in-laws; or they may be friends from the former neighborhood who moved with your family. They will also often turn up on deeds and other documents as witnesses.
• Don't forget to look for ALL relatives in the census --- not just siblings, parents and children, but in-laws and cousins. You may get some wonderful bonuses ... orphaned children living with an uncle, elderly parents living with cousins, children living in the home of other relatives to work on the farm, learn a trade, or go to school, etc.

If you ever wished the census taker had not skipped one of the questions (or missed your family altogether), now's your chance to help remedy that for future genealogists. The Bureau of the Census has been mandated to count everyone who lives in the United States in the year 2000.

In 1990, the estimates are that 8 million people were missed and 4 million were counted twice. (Haya El Nasser, USA TODAY). The Supreme Court has upheld the enumeration of all citizens versus the proposal of "sampling" a percentage of the population and extrapolating that information to get a count. This means that everyone will be required to complete a census form, and census-takers will be following up on those who do not return them by mail. The Bureau of the Census has announced plans to use more than 500,000 individuals to fill the 860,000 census-taker slots.

This is a great chance to do something for future genealogists, and might be interesting along the way - and, by the way, it is a paying job. Working as a census-taker can be a part-time job; welfare or Social Security benefits will not be affected; non-citizens and government employees are also eligible to apply. If you are interested, call 1-888-325-7733 or visit their web site at: http://www.census.gov/jobs2000 .

• Andriot, Jay (compiler). Township Atlas of the United States. McLean, VA: Documents Index Inc., 1991.
• Croom, Emily Anne. The Genealogist's Companion & Sourcebook. Cincinnati, OH: Betterway Books, 1994. Includes copy-ready census abstract forms for 1790, 1800/1810, 1820, 1830/1840, 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880, 1900, 1920 and 1920, plus slave schedules for 1830, 1840, 1850/1860.
• Croom, Emily Anne. Unpuzzling Your Past: A Basic Guide to Genealogy (Second Edition). White Hall, VA: Betterway Publications, Inc., 1989. Includes copy-ready census abstract forms for 1790, 1800/1810, 1820, 1830/1840, 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880, 1900, and 1910, plus slave schedules for 1830, 1840, 1850/1860, and a census checklist to be used for each individual.
• Dollarhide, William. The Census Book: A Genealogist's Guide to Federal Census Facts, Schedules and Indexes. Bountiful, UT: Heritage Quest, 1999. Includes ready-to-copy/print forms for 1790-1930, plus slave schedules, mortality schedules, soundex index extraction forms, census worksheet and census comparison sheet, plus maps, and a CD of the entire text plus forms.
• National Archives and Records Administration. Index to the Eleventh Census of the United States, 1890. National Archives microfilm M496.
• Szucs, Loretto Dennis and Sandra Hargreaves Luebking. The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy (Revised Edition). Salt Lake City, UT: Ancestry, Inc., 1997.
• National Archives and Records Administration. The 1790-1890 Federal Population Censuses: Catalog of National Archives Microfilm (Revised). Washington, DC: National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1997.
• National Archives and Records Administration. The 1900 Federal Population Census: A Catalog of Microfilm Copies of the Schedules (Revised). Washington, DC: The National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1996.
• National Archives and Records Administration. The 1910 Federal Population Census: A Catalog of Microfilm Copies of the Schedules. Washington, DC: National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1982.
• National Archives and Records Administration. The 1920 Federal Population Census: A Catalog of Microfilm Copies of the Schedules (Revised). Washington, DC: The National Archives and Records Administration, 1992.
• Thorndale, William, and William Dollarhide. Map Guide to the U.S. Federal Censuses, 1790-1920. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1987.

• Malherd Press, Box 507, Burton, OH 44021.
• Peacefield Genealogies, 1324 Franklin Street SE, Grand Rapids, MI 49506.
• Southern California Genealogical Society, 103 South Golden Mall, Burbank, CA 91502.
• The Everton Publishers, Inc., P.O. Box 368, Logan, Utah.

• Census Lookup Site. Volunteers will do reasonable census lookups. Give the surname, first name, county, state and year - maximum 2 families per request. http://www.rootsweb.com/~uslookup/ .
• Census Online: Census Sites on the Web. Links to census information, online data, and transcriptions, also with links by state or province. http://www.census-online.com/ .
• CensusLinks. Lots of good links to online census information, by location (even has a link to register for online search of the Danish census!). http://censuslinks.com/
• Cyndi's List of U.S. Federal Census Resources. http://www.cyndislist.com/census.htm
• Family History SourceGuide (also available on CD). This site has source guides on how to use the censuses and AIS Indexes, as well as downloadable blank forms for census abstracts (U.S., Canada, and UK). http://www.familysearch.org/sg/index_s.html .
• Genealogy.com: Printable abstracts for census records, 1790-1920. http://www.genealogy.com/genealogy/00000061.html
• Heritage Quest Census CD's: http://www.heritagequest.com/ . Also has a link to a description of soundex and miracode systems.
• National Archives and Records Administration. To order census films and publications. http://www.nara.gov/publications/micro.html#census
• Soundex card. Blank cards to print for use in abstracting information from soundex indexes. http://www.genealogy-mall.com/sndxcard.htm
• The Soundex Machine. NARA-sponsored site which calculates the Soundex code for a surname entered - quick and easy. http://www.nara.gov/genealogy/soundex/soundex.html .
• U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/ . For specific census availability information: http://www.census.gov/prod/2/gen/cff-9702.pdf . For 2000 census information: http://www.census.gov/jobs2000/www/index.html .
• U.S. Census images online from Genealogy.com (formerly Broderbund and Familytreemaker sites. Now offers more than 220,000 images from the 1850 Census for a total of 18 states. www.GenealogyLibrary.com (also available on Family Archive CD- ROMs). Note, access requires a paid subscription. See the site for details.
• US Genweb Archives Census Project Census Images. http://www.rootsweb.com/~usgenweb/cen_img.htm .

• Collier, Leslie Smith. "Pre-1850 Census: Perils and Delights". 1998 NGS Conference in the States, Denver, CO. DEN98F125.
• Collier, Leslie Smith. "The U.S. Census - Your New Best Friend". FGS & Dallas Genealogical Society 1997 Conference, Dallas, TX. FGD-T-42.
• Hatcher, Patricia Law. "My Ancestor Isn't in the Census? Are You Sure?". Wisconsin State Genealogical Society, 1998 Wisconsin Sesquicentennial Family History Conference, Madison, WI. WSFWGS08.
• Joslyn, Roger D. "Taking a Closer Look At The Census." National Genealogical Society, 1997 Annual Conference in the States, Valley Forge, PA. VFP-F119.
• Joslyn, Roger D. "Three Females 10-16...Making Sense of Pre-1850 Censuses." A Consortium of Genealogical Societies in New England, 1998 New England Regional Genealogical Conference, Portland, ME. GCNE9814.
• Meyerink, Kory. "Analyzing US Census Findings". Salt Lake City, UT, 4/9/1998.
  UGAC9843
• Slater-Putt, Dawn. "The Good, The Bad, and the Lucky of Census Research." FGS 1999 Annual Conference, St. Louis, MO. FGSSLT73.
• Szucs, Loretto Dennis. "Unraveling the Mysteries of the Census". 1998 NGS Conference in the States, Denver, CO. DEN98S190.
• Westside Room. "Census Research for the Beginner." Jewish Genealogical Society of Los Angeles, 18^th Annual Seminar on Jewish Genealogy, Los Angeles, CA. ASJGCA05.

I am always interested in hearing from readers, so if you have any comments, suggestions, or questions, please email me at: talkgenealogy@aol.com. Stop by next month for more Pilgrims, Pioneers & Aliens! Happy Hunting!

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