Ancient Frankincense

Adventure with Frankincense
By Christoper McMahon

The body soon dissolv'd, and all around
Perfum'd with heav'nly fragrancies the ground,
A sacrifice for Gods up-rose from thence,
A sweet, delightful tree of frankincense. Ovid

(Authors note: Since my childhood, I have been entranced with the odor of frankincense. Growing up in a Roman Catholic family, I was exposed to this intoxicating aroma as it was part and parcel of church services. It truly conveyed to my heart and mind a sense of mystery and sanctity . Those special impressions have remained with me to this day)

Searching for a Source of Frankincense Oil

In 1998, I felt the draw to find a reliable source for a pure essential oil of frankincense from the United Arab Emirates. Since 1995 I had been regularly visiting India to source pure essential oils and absolutes as well as to study how aromatic plants had been used in the countries cultural and religious traditions. There I had come across the oil distilled from Indian frankincense(Boswellia serrata) and it awakened in my mind the remembrance of the feelings I had when inhaling the ethereal smoke as a child. John Steele of Lifetree Aromatix had also provided me with a beautiful sample of frankincense oil from Oman(Boswellia sacra) which further inspired me to do deeper research into this wonderous substance.

As fortune would have it, I was browsing through the internet one day and I noticed an advertisement for frankincense "tears" from Oman, and myrrh from Yemen from a company located in Oman. From the web page I was able to determine that the company was selling the raw oleo-gum-resins of these precious substances for the incense trade. For some reason I felt drawn to correspond with the proprieter of the company and within a short time we had entered into a lively exchange of ideas on how frankincense from Oman might be distilled for the swiftly growing community of aromatherapists and creative perfumers. He displayed a wonderful sincerity and interest in providing a truly sparkling frankincense oil for those who treasure and appreciate such aromatic delights. I, for my part, felt a tremendous joy in thinking I could somehow assist in bringing such a project into being.

As e-mails flowed between us, I encouraged him to investigate various methods of extraction and distillation of the oil as well as to have the end product analyzed by a competent lab. He, along with his business partner already had the finest raw material available procured from the fabled Dhofar Valley, center of the ancient incense trade, but they did not yet have the connections to transform it into the sublime magical essential oil which I knew would delight the hearts of many, many people around the world. From my explorations of India's fragrance industry, I had learned the importance of using the best raw materials, distilling those materials under the finest conditions and with the best equipment and then having it analyzed by a competent quality control lab. Along with this I encouraged him to learn as much as possible about the whole story surrounding frankincense, ancient and modern, so that people could not only trust in the purity of the product but also feel the ancient aura surrounding its use. It is when personal enthusiasm and interest gets kindled in our own hearts that we can kindle it in others.

Naturally, what happened was that I, also, got drawn deeper and deeper into the project. Even though I was thousands of miles away, I felt closely linked up with what was going on. My friend left no stone unturned in his efforts to get the project rolling. He sent off samples of both frankincense and myrrh to England to have them processed by the phytonic mehtod. He had the oils tested for quality and purity. He enquired from various companies as to the possibility of purchasing extracting or distilling equipment to be set up in Oman. Finally he was led to the doors of Synthite Industrial Chemicals, Ltd. of Cochin, located in South India in the state of Kerala. Interestingly enough, Synthite was the first company I visited when I began my in-depth research project on India's modern fragrance industry in 1995. The facilities of this company are not only respected in India but also abroad. Seeing their distilling and extracting units was quite an eye-opener for me as one could quickly discern that these folks were working at a very advanced level, quite on the par with any international company. Fortunately Synthite was active in distilling Indian frankincense so they were willing to do distillation of Oman frankincense on a toll basis. Now there is a regular supply available of this precious oil.

The Story of Oman Frankincense

What then of the story of frankincense? It is a vast subject which others have written on quite competently. An excellent introduction to the frankincense story can be encountered in Martin Watt and Wanda Stellar's book, Frankincense and Myrrh. Frankincense and Myrrh by Nigel Groom, though now out-of-print is an excellent resource on the ancient international trade surrounding these precious substances. The Road to Ubar published last year, is an incredible true story of the discovery of an ancient city in Oman which played pivotal role in distributing the incense of the Dhofar Valley to far distant lands of that time. The superb, Plants of Dhofar by Anthony Miller and Miranda Morris and illustrated by Susanna Stuart-Smith is another treasure which brings to life the ancient and modern world of the Dhofar Valley of Oman, where some of the finest incense in the world is still harvested Finally one can obtain an excellent compedium of information on Boswellia sacra from the SEPASAL Database on the internet: http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/ceb/sepasal/bsacra.htm

With a little investigative spirit many other resources can be uncovered that bring this story to life. With a small vial of this delightful essence close at hand one can with a few gentle inhalations traverse time and space into a world that is full of deep and wonderful experiences. On this small adventure, we will be focusing in on the Dhofar Valley, the sacred incense trees which have grown there for countless centuries, and the people who harvest and use this precious gift in their everyday life.

Now let us dive into an exploration of this extraordinary tree, the place where it grows, its aromatic profile, its cultural uses and other information which might enhance our appreciation and respect for it. In this regard, I must rely on information that has come to me through books, internet resources and personal communications. Soon Steve and Mukhtar will be proceeding to the Dhofar Valley to document the spring harvest of this valuable botanical. This will help immensely in bringing to life a story which has captured the imagination of humans for thousands of years. Truly speaking there is no substitute for actually visiting the area where the trees grow but for now an imaginative investigation is all that is possible.

The Dhofar Region of Oman

Dhofar, also spelled DHUFAR, Arabic ZUFAR, historical region in southern Oman, extending from Cape Ash-Sharbatat on the coast of the Arabian Sea southwestward to the Oman-Yemen border. The region's northern boundary has never been defined, but generally included in the territory is the Wadi Mughshin, located about 150 miles (240 km) inland. To the northeast of Dhofar is a large desert of stony plains and sand dunes that contribute to the region's isolation from northern Oman. The Salalah coastal plain (about 40 miles [64 km] long an ranging from 1 to 6 miles [1.5 to 9.5 km] wide), facing the Arabian Sea, is considered one of the most beautiful in Arabia, particularly in its southwestern part, because of its monsoon climate and temperate vegetation and bird life; the region has constantly flowing streams, making it Oman's most fertile area. About 10 miles (16 km) inland the rugged al- Qara Mountains rise to heights of between 3,000 and 4,000 feet (900 and 1,200 m). Farther north the al-Qara` Mountains give way to a pebbly desert, beyond which lies the Rub' al-Khali ("Empty Quarter") of Saudi Arabia.

Major crops in Dhofar include coconuts, alfalfa, sorghum, bananas, and vegetables. The region is the world's leading source of frankincense. Dhofar is Oman's cattle-raising area, primarily for milk. There are oil fields in the northeast. The coastal town of Salalah, sprawled along a sandy beach, was the permanent residence of the former sultan of Oman. Other major towns, all situated on the plain, include Mirbat, Taqah, Raysut, and Rakhyut. A road from Salalah crosses the al-Qara` Mountains north to Thamril, where a graded road continues northward. The mountain sector is inhabited almost exclusively by the Qara Sheva, and Mahra peoples; the majority of the peoples on the Salalah plain are Najd and Kathier.

"Dhofar" Britannica Online. http://www.eb.com:180/cgi-bin/g?DocF=micro/168/31.html

Frankincense Trees of Oman

In this region then we find Boswellia sacra, Sacred Frankincense, growing in an environment that is most condusive to producing an oleo-gum resin of the highest quality. Rising from the coastal plain, through the foothills, and up to the steepily rising escarpment, one comest to the summit grasslands, followed by the dry plateau and the desert beyond. It is in the regions of the grasslands where the first real stands of frankincense are to be found and they continue to exist even into the true desert or 'nejd' as it is called in Oman. In fact some of the finest frankincense that is harvested come from this severe desert environment.The trees are found in the greatest profusion in an area just west of the dry plateau in a landscape characterized by cliffs, gullies and ravines which have been carved into the landscape over the period of many millineium. In modern times this area receives little monsoon rainfall but at one time must have been alive with seasonal rivers and streams. The trees adapt well to the lower slopes of the cliffs and at the base of gullies and larger stands can be found on the broader floors of the wadis(a valley, ravine, or watercourse that remains dry except during the rainy season).

Giving a definite description of the tree itself is difficult because there is great variablility in its visible characteristics. Wild growing specimens can seldom be treated like cultivated crops where it is possible to gain consisitency of characteristics through selected breeding. Part of the charm of wild growing frankincense trees is that each has their own personality and even within the same basic climatic zone one can behold markedly different characteristics. In the Dhofar region they tend to be short and squat, reaching a height of 5 metres, with papery peeling bark which varies from white to reddish in color. Multiple trunks often rise out of a cushion or disk like base which helps stablize the tree on the boulders and steep embankments where they grow. Alternate, pinnately compound leaves cluster at the end of branches. Small white to pale pink flowers appear on the tree from September to November and are followed by small capsule, obovoid type fruits. All parts of the tree: flowers, fruit bark and wood are charged with the resinious perfume of frankincense. Having made these broad generalizations, one must realize that there is tremendous variety both within the species and the genus. Boswellia sacra represents only one of approximately 25 different species of the genus.

Frankincense Oleo-gum-resin

The oleo-gum-resin which exhudes either naturally from reservoirs in bark or is produced from human-made incisions is the prized substance that has enjoyed world renowned since ancient times. The milky substance which drys into the lumps and tears of commerce, is composed of 5-9% volatile oils and 60-70% alcohol soluble resins with the remainder being water soluble gums. The essential oil componet of frankincense contains more than 200 individual natural chemicals, the combination of which gives the essence a very complex bouquet. There is considerable variation in the proportion of these componets depending on the micro-climate in what the trees grow, the soil type in which the roots are lodged, the season at which the oleo-gum-resin is harvested, and a number of other variables. When we hear the word 'frankincense' we tend to think of this material as being just one fixed substance but nothing could be further from the truth. This is why any use of the essence for a specific therapeutic purposes must be based on the analysis of the particular oil being used. There are many general benefits to be derived from the oil and other plant parts but when a specific treatment calls for a higher proportion of a particular componet and its supporting cast of minor constituents one must have exact knowledge of the particular oil they are dealing with.

Species of Frankincense-Boswellia spp.

The issue regarding the correct naming of the different species has caused confusion and continues to cause confusion amongst perfumers and aromatherapists alike. Part of the problem comes at the very source of the raw material as its source needs to be correctly identified and then distilled from that particular species to develop a semi-accurate aromatic profile of the oil. But even this cannot truly give us an distinct picture of the differences between the major species from which the oleo-gum-resin is procured and distilled because within each species there is great variation in the quality of material depending on the area from which it comes, the micro climate where it grows, the time of year when it was harvested, at which point within any particular season the material was gathered, etc. In short wild-harvested frankincense is a unique material that cannot be pigeon-holed into any one category and has to be studied and appreciated for its great individuality. For the sake of general understanding though, the following quotation is extracted from The Plants of Dhofar.

"Several species of Boswellia including B. sacra, B. papyrifera(from tropical NE Africa), B. frereana(from Somalia), and B. serrata(from India) produce an oleo-gum-resin which is exploited as the frankincense or oblibanum of commerce-the different species each producing a distinct type and quality of resin. Only one species, Boswellia sacra, is found in Arabia. This also occurs along the north eastern coast of Somalia. In Arabia B. sacra extends from the Hasik area in Dhofar west to near Habban in the eastern part of the Hadramaut(in Yemen)

The correct scientific name for the Arabian plants has for a long time been rather confused. The first scientific collection of specimens from an Arabian frankincense tree was made in 1846 by Dr.H. J. Carter at Rakhyut(Oman). Carter was surgeon aboard the East Indian Company's survey ship Palinurus which surveyed the Southern Arabian Coast. At the time, he incorrectly named his specimens as B. serrata, an Indian species. In 1867 a Swiss chemist and botanist Flueckiger re-examined Carter's speciemens and described them as a new species-B. sacra. Three years later in 1870 an English botanist Birdwood revised the whole genusand considered Carter's specimens to be the same as material from Somalia which he described as B. carteri-a name which for a long time misapplied to the Arabian plants. Recent research has shown that the African plants(under the name B. carteri) and the Arbian plants all belong to the same species which must be called by the oldest name-Boswellia sacra."

For many people such flip-flops in naming of a particular species may seem an academic pursuit, and perhaps on one level it is, but if one is trying to locate a specific species of Boswellia it becomes very important to try to follow the changes in naming which have taken place. What it means for most of us is that the names B. sacra and B. carteri really refer to the same species of plant. Where some confusion can creep in is when one is purchasing frankincense oil or raw material from Somalia because there, two types of frankincense are to be found, B. sacra/carteri and B. frereana. The chemical consitituents and odor profile of the two are quite different. There is much less chance that such a confusion may occur between Indian frankincense(B. serrata) and the Arabian and African types but a truly dedicated perfumer, aromatherapist or essential oil purveyor should understand the basic differences between the three.

Frankincense Oil

The general aromatic profile of frankincense oil derived from Boswellia sacra/carteri), B. serrata, and B. frereana can be characterized as follows. The free flowing translucent to pale yellow or pale amber liquid displays a very diffusive, tangy-fresh, sparkling odor containing pine-lemon notes. As the oil slowly unfolds its unique bouquet, one begins to detect its delicate sweet, resinous woody undertones. The degree to which any of the above characteristics manifests is dependent on the species from which the oil was distilled, the method and time of distillation, etc. In the case of Boswellia sacra the top note is soft, sweet and fruity before it melts into the odor which most people think of as "frankincense'.

Frankincense-The Human Element

Up to this point we have discussed the plant, its habitat, and olfactory characteristics but of equal importance to this story is the human element which is all to easy to forget unless we may a sincere effort to imagine people leading ways of life quite different than our own. Tragically, many of the rich aromatic traditions surrounding such plants as frankincense are in danger of being lost as people turn from the simple agrarian lifesyles that they possessed for hundreds if not thousands of years for the convenience of modern ways. At one time plants like frankincense provided indigenous people with a great variety of uses including ceremonial worship, medicines, deodorants, dyes, cosmetics, etc. A whole ethic of honoring and venerating these profound gifts of nature existed which gave dignity and meaning to the peoples lives. Many of us yearn to recapture the spirit of the ancient ways in our own lives and wish that we had the connection with the natural world that such cultures possessed. We do not have those skills and techniques which come to one through long generations of living in close proximity to the earth and deriving ones needs from ones immediate environment but our hearts feel a kinship with that type of wisdom and knowledge. It behooves us therefore to think upon these swiftly disappearing lifestyles so that in some way, shape or form this knowledge will not completely die out.

The Communities which Harvest Frankincense

In the frankincense gathering areas of Oman two different communities of people are engaged in the harvest of frankincense, the Jabali's in grass lands and the dry plateau and the bedouins in the desert regions. The people of the Jabali community are a cattle-based community and have lived in the mountains vegetative region for thousands of years. Today there population stands at around 20,000 and still they maintain many of their traditional ways although the convenience of procuring ready-made goods is making inroads into their ancient lifestyples. In the entire history of their presence in the region, there is little evidence of environmental degradation. They have been conscientious about keeping their cattle from overgrazing and live in simple circular stone houses surrmounted with a doomed roof frame made from branches of trees and covered with grass and soil. They build similar structures for there animals which besides cattle include some goats, camels and sheep. The bedouins community are nomadic tribes people who live on the edge of the desert as they have for thousands of years. They have been quicker to adopt modern conveniences which in some instances has had greater environmental impact in the area where they live. In the Road to Ubar, Nicholas Clapp gives us a vivid depiction of an ancient way of life that still exists today in the Dhofar mountains:

"That we might see more of the living history of the highlands of Dhofar, Ali Achmed invited us to visit a remote Shahra settlement. Driving by night, we arrived at dawn at a compound of four thatched huts clustered around a brushwood corral. Three of the huts sheltered the cattle; the fourth was the home of the extended family. Though the hut was windowldess, two doors let in sufficient light to illuminate the single large room. Its walls and domed ceiling were woven of twisted, blackened tree trunks and branches, the best wood to be had in this arid land. Two young girls were rolling up sleepingmats. A baby was sqaulling in the corner. Two older men and a woman crouched by an open fire, making their preparations for the day, a day measured by the burning of frankincense.

Though woman wore a long, hooded black dress, she was unveiled. A gold ring pierced her nose, her eyes shone with self-assurance. She was the settlement's matriarch. With brass tongs she picked embers from the fire and placed them in a brightly painted clay incense burner shaped like a horned altar. The she added crystals of frankincense, which glowed brightly and immediately gave rise to a fragrant smoky plume. All the while she chattered with the two men in the Shahra's strange 'language of the birds.'
"Incense is most pleasing to God," she said, adding more crystals.
"But enough, woman, enough!" interjected one of the men, his eyes smarting from the smoke.
"Too bad for you," she said laughing, and led the way outside. The men downed handfuls of pine nuts, the last of their breakfast, and followed. With clouds of incense billowing skyward, the little group circled the compound's corral. And in the light of day we saw that the men were wearing elegant purple robes looped over their right shoulders, a rarely seen traditional dress. They paused to offer prayers and incense at the entrances to the three domed huts in which their cattle had spent the night. The incense wasn't of offset the smell of the cattle(though it helped); rather it was offere to protect the animals-from djinns."

The Frankincense Harvest

This precious substance which from morning to night plays such an important part in the people's lives is harvested at different times of year yielding various grades of frankincense. Traditionally there appears to have been a spring harvest(March-May) and a fall harvest(late September through October) The frankincense produced from the fall harvest was acclaimed to be the best. The trees were scored at various places along the main trunk and branches with a tool called a mengaff. Basically a mengaff is a wooden handled implement with a relatively sharp broad metal blade inserted in which is used for penetrating the bark of the tree where the frankincense reservoirs lay. The small wounds in the bark produce the milky white exhudate which hardens and changes color during the two week which is allotted for it to dry on the tree. Only that material is collected which drys on the wound itself, the material which runs down the stem is allowed to collect at the base of the tree during the harvest season and is collected all at one time. The globular tears that are scraped off at 2-3 week intervals are considered superior in quality to that which collects on the ground. Even the frankincense collected from the wounds is graded with the first several collections be considered inferior to later ones.Once the seasons collection is completed, the raw frankincense is allowed to cure for three months before being sold for domestic or international use. It is stored on the floor of dry caves during this period of maturation.

Each tree is by unspoken agreement owned by the families living in a particular area where they grow. The guardianship of the trees is past on from generation to generation. There are ancient rituals surrounding the harvest of the exhudate. In the Road to Ubar the author witnessed one such occasion.

"A few days later we watched a band of little children dancing along behind two tribesmen-one wiry, one corpulent-as they crossed an arid valley and approached a scattering of scraggly trees with reddish bark. Bent and twisted, many of the trees were only waist high. Yet their resin, or sap, was once as valuable as gold. They were frankincense trees, found where the mountains of Dhofar gave way to the great interior desert of Arabia.

he wiry man's craggy face was framed with a handsome white beard and a black turban. Je wore a saronglike garment with a traditional silver dagger at his waist, complemented by a recent-issue assault rifle slung over his shoulder. Approaching a frankincense tree he noisily exhaled then chanted" "Ab st't d'h'la fe lh'ya!"(Exhale) "Al as'r m'sly l'yo tr'le'ha!"(Exhale) His age old song of harvest had a driving, intense rhythm, punctuated by strange, percussive exhalations.

Moving in time to his song, the wiry tribesman slashed bits of bark from the tree. A few yards away his partner - a pashalike fellow topped by a large red turban - mirrored his movements. The little children ran from one man to the other as, giggling and laughing, they played tag in groves of antiquity.

The chant ended in a loud exhalation. The tribesmen and the children drifted off across the land, a moonscape dotted by small groves of frankincense. The shouts and distant laughter of the children dissolved into a desert breeze, which now bore the piney, slightly raw scent of freshly cut frankincense. Each slash in a tree's bark produced a dozen or so thick white globules of resin. Slowly these globules would lose their milky opacity and gain a silvery translucense as the frankincense hardened and crystalized. Fifteen days hence, the men would return to scrape it into special shallow baskets"

Amongst the tribal people and those who buy frankincense from them, there is a exists a wealth of information that only can be accessed by true connoiseurs of the subject. Major groups of Boswellia sacra are demarcated by the region they come from, the season they were harvested, etc but within there are subdivisions which give further indications as to the quality of the material. In the Plants of Dhofar, we read:

Grades of Frankincense

"Within each major type further subdivision was made, a particular grade of gum being asked for by the name of its place of origin -- thus the very best gum of all was said to have been that produced in the area between Dahanut and Habjer in the mountains behind Hasik, and arear reached by climbing the pass at Bab Harkek. But even within this area, a knowledgeable purchaser would ask for gum from Ba'al Sower, from Mussi, from Ejefo de Golot or from Elekah Esekes -- that is by individual 'manzilt', or gum collecting work camp. Different grades of gum were used for different purposes. When used dried(for fumigation mainly), it was considered more important to know exactly the source of the gum, but when used fresh this was of less important."

Reading these illuminating descriptions of the importance of frankincense within the country, we truly come to understand that such aromatic botanicals had an intrinsic value which no amount of money can properly buy. One might say that it is the richness of understanding and appreciation which gives real value to such things and not how many dollars is paid for it. Even today there is a great dependence on frankincense as a kind of all purpose medicine, cosmetic, plant dye, etc. The people of Dhofar who still live in rural districts find an astonishing diversity of uses for all parts of the plant. Listed below are some of them.

Medicinal Uses of the Oleo-gum-resin

1.The fresh gum is chewed for strengthing the teeth and gums, to stimulate digestion and to combat halitosis.

2. Small pieces of gum are mixed with salt and inserted into painful teeth

3. Fresh pieces of gum are in treatment of fractures. The broken limb is treated by splinting it between two pieces of frankincense bark smeared with fresh frankincense gum. As the gum drys it hardens which creates a rigid case to support the broken limb

4. In the case of inflammation for both man and beast, frankincense gum is boiled in milk until a thick paste is formed, when it is applied to the affected part

5. The smoke from the burning gum is considered to have powerful curative and protective properties. Sick humans or domesticated animals are customarily fumigated with incense.

6. Gum is a common ingredient in eye washes to treat a soreness, infection, irritation.

7. The gum is dissolved in milk and taken for cough

8. Smoke of gum is inhaled by people suffering from headache

9. Frankincense chewed to remove phlem and mucus from the head

10. In the past frankincense was put in wine to numb the pain of a person to be executed

11. A potion made with snakeskin, wine and frankincense is said to ease pain of childbirth

12. Small doses of frankincense infused wine were given to children suffering from respiratory ailments

13. Soot from frankincense used to treat wounds, ulcerations and cancerous growths

Medicinal uses for the bark

1. Astringent bark is dried and powdered and made into a soothing paste which is applied on the body for sores, or for severe muscle pain

2. Astringent bark chewed by women suffering from pre-childbirth nausea

3. Bark is slowly singed on fire until black and then stored in family medicine chest to treat wounds and sores

4. Astringent bark is dried and ground and taken as a stimulating and cleansing infusion

Medicinal Uses for the fruit

1. Dried hard core of the fruit is ground and used as a potent medicament

2. Fruits gathered and fed to sickly stock as it is thought to have curative and stimulating powers

3. Fruits are consumed as a digestive tonic

Aesthetic Uses for the oleo-gum-resin

1. In Dhofar and all the Middle East, frankincense is one of the most prominent fragrances. Wooden fumigating tripods are used to perfume and fumigate clothing. A special incense burner is placed at the base and clothes are layered above

2. Distilled and extracted to yield essential oil, resinoid, and absolute. Valued for its distinct oriental notes as well as fixative qualities. In Oman a very costly perfume is now prepared using these aromatic oils. It is called Amourage and enjoys and international reputation

3. Used to prepare a hair oil which helped fix the hair tight against the head and give it a gleaming appearance. This particular hair styple was once popular in Dhofar

4. A special talcum powder is prepared using frankincense, spices and ammonium salts to perfume and soften the skin

Aesthetic Uses for Bark

1. A dye is prepared from the red-colored underbark to dye cloth. The dyed cloth turned out a rich red-brown which was a favorite amongs the indigenous people living in drier regions.

2. The bark is also used in the tanning process to help turn leather a rich mahagony red color

3. The bark when ground to a paste is used to scrub the insides of leather water bags which have become tainted or smelly until the leather is once again smooth and supple and all maliferous odors are removed

Social and Religious Uses for the oleo-gum-resin

1. In Dhofar visitors are offered bowls of burning incense. Men waft the smoke about their beards, chest, and heads. Women perfume their head shawls and in less formal circumstances stand over the brazier and trap the smoke under their gowns rendering themselves odiferous

2. A very special grade of frankincense is kept in special containers for important occasions. One of these is the when children have to recite long passages from the Holy Qur'an. The night before the examination several of the precious frankincense pearls are soaked in water with iron. The first thing in the morning the child to be examined drinks the liquid which is said to improve the memory and improve chances of success

3. Frankincense is burned when people swear an oath. It is also burned at the shrines of revered holy men

4. It is burned at wedding and religious occasions. Said to keep away all evil influences and attract wholesome ones

Practical uses for the oleo-gum-resin

1. Used in a mixture with pitch, sulfur, sawdust and tow, to smear on the end of staves which are very hard to extinguish. Once used to set enemy stongholds on fire

2. Used to patch broken vessels as it becomes a pliable water sealant

3. Clay and wooden water vessels are regularly purified with frankincense smoke. After being cleaned and scrubbed frankincense burners are lowered into them and the vessels sealed so that the smoke thoroughly permeates the vessels. As soon as the burners are removed fresh water is poured in and the vessels once again thoroughly covered

From these few simple examples we can have a glimpse of a way of life which is still preserved to a certain extend but is in danger of passing away. The care and consideration for the different traditions that surround the use of frankincense are time consuming by modern standards. A person or community has to be moving at a pace dictated by the rhythms of nature to truly benefit from the medicines, cosmetics, dyes, and other practical commodities supplied by nature. This type of attunement is often looked upon as unsophisticated by modern man but it may be that in forsaking some of the ancient ways we have lost something of inestimable value. Perhaps only when we have lost something valuable or traded it for tinseled trinkets and then realized our mistake, can we begin to regain our human heritage with dignity and consciousness.

A Method for Reseraching Aromatic Plants Using Frankincense as an Example

Having now made an attempt to explore the world in which frankincense is grown and harvested by Oman's indigenous people, it would be interesting to see what modern investigations on the oil have to tell us about its uses and the way this knowledge is being applied by aromatherapists. Since people regularly contact me about the virtues of oils, scientific literature related to etc, I think it would be helpful to discuss ways in which some of this information can be accessed on the internet. First anyone deeply interested in medicinal and aromatic plants, their chemical constituents and their ethnobotanical uses could tremendously benefit from learning to access Jim Duke's incredible Phytochemical and Ethnobonical Database at: http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/index.html

When the page comes up one will see a Plant Searches category. Several selections are there but if one is interested in finding out the chemical constituents of Boswellia carteri/sacra they simply clicks on the Chemicals and activities in a particular plant

Line. Then the Plant Choices-Phytochemical Database comes up. In this section one can choose to search by common name,frankincense; or by the scientific name, Boswellia. Since species names of plants often change, or may be different than the one usually knows the plant as, it is best to do just the genus name search which will list all the species of that particular genus contained in the database. Having clicked either the Common Name, or Scientific Name name, then entered the plant for which one wishes to search, one then presses Submit Query. In this case I pressed checked Scientific Name and entered Boswellia. This brings one to the Farmacy Query page.

On this page a box appears listing the species of that genus which are included. In this case only Boswellia carteria is listed. Down below it are are six more buttons one can select if one is after a particular type of information on the plant. It is wise to experiment with different combinations of these buttons to obtain just the type of information that one needs. If a general search is done without specifying any specific parameters, then one will get a page listing a great assortment of chemical componets of Boswellia carterii which also tells if that componet is from the whole plant, the latex exhudate, the essential oil etc.

For example one of the componets of Boswellia carterii is caryophyllene. It is present in the essential oil. By clicking on on caryophyllene one brings up a page which tells all the biological activities of that chemical as well as the percentage of concentration in various plants. For caryophyllene we find:

Biological Activities

Antiasthmatic Reference: LAF

Anticariogenic Dosage: MIC=>1,600 ug/ml; Reference: JAF41:1103

Antiedemic Reference: CPB38:2283

Antifeedant Dosage: 500 ppm; Reference: TOX

Antiinflammatory Dosage: IC50=100 uM; Reference: CPB38:2283

Antitumor Reference: JNP55:999

Bactericide Reference: JAF40:2328

FLavor Dosage: FEMA 20-200; Reference: ARC

Insectifuge Reference: 382

Perfumery Reference: M11

Spasmolytic

Termitifuge Reference: 382

The reference number, if clicked, gives the exact scientific document from which its purported biological activity is quoted. This is an absolutely invaluable resource and can help people to research a great number of plants in an efficient and systematic way. Admittedly no one resource can tell a person everything they need to know, but James Duke(a really warm, friendly, kind and dedicated person) has done a wonderous work that can help every one from the novice to the experienced researcher find the information they need.

Returning to the first page of the database one can go down to the Browsable Databases section. There one will find the EthnobotDB line. Three words follow it;

EthnobotDB--worldwide plant uses [ browse | query | about ]

Clicking on the word "browse" one comes to page which has a number of buttons under the Classes heading. If one presses on and holds down the button saying "Common name" they can choose to search by Common Name, Country, Ethnobotany, Family, Genus, References, Taxon or Use. Choosing Common name and pressing the Select Class from Above and press Here to Browse button, one is brought to the sublist section. Since the entire list of plants included is huge, one can chose a sublist which is specific to the name one is searching. Since frankincense is being searched one chooses:

Fueilles Cara.Gendurusa bukit(Hill gendarusa)

as it falls between the common name of two other plants. Selecting that line and pressing the Get sublist button one comes to the entire list of plants within the parameters listied above. One can select more than one of the names listed if one is doing a multiple search, but since "Frankincense" is our goal that name alone is selected from the list. Pressing the Select One or more objects and press Here button one is brought to the page listing

Boswellia serrata and Boswellia spp(species) classes. Since we are not currently interested in Boswellia serrata(India frankincense) we press on the Boswellia spp line and a whole page appears listing the common names and ethnobotanical uses of the plants along with the country or peoples of the world who use them. Thus in one incredible database one can find both types of information, traditional and scientific regarding the uses of a particular plant. No words of praise of mine can properly thank Jim for what he has done.

Further explorations of the subject using the internet can be made by searching under such keywords as Boswellia, Boswellia caterii, Boswellia sacra, frankincense, olibanum. One should definitedly try as many approaches to the subject as possible as each search engine has its own strenghts and limititations. In fact one should make this search on a number of engines like Yahoo, Alta Vista, Metacrawler, Metafind, Infoseek, Excite, Hotbot, etc. The same word will bring up different sources on different engines. It takes timea and patience to investigate any one topic but if one is persistent real jewels can be turned up. Listed below are some of the ones I have found relating to frankincense.

http://griffin.rbgkew.org.uk/ceb/sepasal/bsacra.htm
An absolutely incredible database on Boswellia sacra. More information then one could ever digest. Very good reference documentation which helps tremendously in doing detailed research library work

http://www.frontierherb.com/aromatherapy/aro.notes.no10.html
Frontier Herb's page gives a nice summary of Frankincense, its therapeutic uses for aromatherapy etc.

http://www.sjkgroup.com/a-gcms-b-sacra.html
A chemical analysis of Boswellia sacra by Analytical Intelligence of UK and posted by Steve Kovacs of SJK enterprises

http://www.uwcm.ac.uk/uwcm/dm/BoDD/BotDermFolder/BotDermB/BURS.html
This is a very important sight for those interested in researching the dermattological effects of different medicinal and aromatic plants. In this case the folder for Bursuraceae was pulled up which is the family to which the Boswellia genus belongs

http://sarasvati.simenet.com/Indian%20Lexicon/boswellia.html
This database contains an astounding amount of information both historical and biological about aromatic and medicinal plants with particular reference to their use in Eastern tradition. A specific search on Boswellia brought up a great selection of information with many references which can help immensely in doing library searchses

http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2wwwpubeng?specfile=/texts/english/modeng/publicsearch/modengpub.o2w
This database offers the user the opportunity to search specific words, including those of plants, and shows where those words appear in the fiction and poetry works that are available to the public for on-line reading. This is an amazing resource

There is another internet resource which is only available(to my knowledge) through universities, research institutions, government facilities etc. Seldom will an individual subscribe to such a database because of its high cost. But even a non-student can go to a place like the University of California at Berkeley and use the computers in the campus libraries to search on the Agricola Database. This database "..covers books and journal articles from 1970 to date, with many state agricultural and U.S.D.A. publications being added from the early 1900's. Subjects include agriculture, agricultural economics, animal science, entomology, horticulture, nutrition, plant diseases, and soil science. Lists all the holdings at the National Agricultural Library, including audiovisual materials."

Once one is inside this database they can uncover an incredible wealth of information drawn from the above resources on aromatic plants. If one notes down the journal citations one can then go to their local library which might have an interlibrary loan service will procure those materials for a small fee. This is possible here in the Berkeley Public Library system so I suspect it is true in other parts of the USA. The value of this resource is inestimable because it puts one in touch with all the latest research going on which is printed in a great variety of journals. Following are a some of the articles I located when searching under Boswellia sacra, Boswellia carterii and Olibanum.

TITLE: Comparison of volatile compounds from oilbanum from various countries.
PERSONAL AUTHORHayashi,-S.; Amemori,-H.; Kameoka,-H.; Hanafusa,-M.; Furukawa,-K.
SOURCE: J-essent-oil-res.(Journal of Essential Oil Research) Carol Stream, Ill. : Allured Publishing Corporation. Jan/Feb 1998. v. 10 (1) p. 25-30..
ABSTRACT:The composition of olibanum oil produced by simultaneous distillation and extraction from material produced in Oman, Turkey and Israel was examined by GC and GC/MS. The main constituent of the Omani oil was alpha-pinene (56.6%), whereas the Turkish and Israeli oils were rich in octyl acetate (68.5% and 28.5%) and octanol (11.1% and 10.1%), respectively. From these results it was concluded that the taxonomic origin of Omani oil was Boswellia frereana Birdwood, while those of Turkish and Israeli origin wereB. carteri Birdwood. The antimicrobial activity of Omani olibanum was examined. .

TITLE: Heuristic pharmacognostics in King Solomon's garden.
AUTHOR(S): Lansky-PS; Palevitch-D (ed.); Putievsky-E
SOURCE (BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION): International symposium on medicinal and aromatic plants, Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, Israel, 22-25 Mar. 1993.
Acta-Horticulturae. 1993, No. 344, 166-177; 91 ref..
LANGUAGE OF TEXT: English
ABSTRACT:The use of some medicinal plants their effects have been recorded from ancient writings to contemporary studies. The literature on 6 medicinal species (Punica granatum, Crocus sativa, Acorus calamus, Boswellia carteri [B. sacra], Commiphora myrrha[Commiphora molmol] and Cinnamomum cassia [Cinnamomum aromaticum]), used in ancient times, is reviewed. Historical and modern perspectives are presented. Some heuristic implications for new uses of old medicines are discussed.

TITLE: Anti-inflammatory activity of resins from some species of the plant family Burseraceae.
AUTHOR(S): Duwiejua-M; Zeitlin-IJ; Waterman-PG; Chapman-J; Mhango-GJ; Provan-GJ
SOURCE (BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION): Planta-Medica.1993, 59: 1, 12-16; 16 ref..
LANGUAGE OF TEXT: English
ABSTRACT:The antiinflammatory activities of extracts from the resins of Boswellia dalzielli, B. carteri [B. sacra] (collected from Cameroon), Commiphora mukul and C. incisa (collected from Kenya), were studied. .."

TITLE: The milk of the Boswellia forests: frankincense production among the pastoral Somali.
AUTHOR(S): Farah-AY
SOURCE (BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION): 1988, 382 pp.;60 ref..
PUBLISHER INFORMATIOn:London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London; UK
LANGUAGE OF TEXT: English
ABSTRACT: This thesis is a study of the 'ownership', production (including tapping methods) and marketing of frankincense (Boswellia sacra and B. frereana) in Somalia. It considers first the various local and wider uses of frankincense, both industrial and non-industrial. It then examines the place of frankincense trees in the general classification of property in Somalia, with further consideration of the dominance of pastoral concepts in the frankincense sector and sedentary cultivation in northern Somalia. The thesis also analyses the organization and social relations of frankincense production prior to 1969, and examines the subsequent transformations which have followed the introduction of cooperatives in this sector of the Somali economy.

TITLE: New constituents in olibanum resinoid and essential oil.
AUTHOR(S): Maupetit-P
SOURCE (BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION): Perfumer-and-Flavorist.1984-1985, 9: 6, 19...37; 26 ref..
LANGUAGE OF TEXT: English
ABSTRACT: A commercial gum resin (Aden brand, obtained from Boswellia carterii and B. frereana grown in Arabia and Somalia) was used as the source material. In addition to 169 known constituents, 47 new ones were identified by GC/MS and shown to be of olfactory importance.

TITLE: Chemical and sensory evaluation of trace compounds in naturals.
AUTHOR(S):Boelens-MH
SOURCE (BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION): Perfumer-and-Flavorist.1996, 21: 1, 25-31; 22 ref..
LANGUAGE OF TEXT: English
ABSTRACT: The presence of trace constituents in essential oils, concretes and absolutes at <0.1% includes acids (in costus, patchouli and olibanum oils), phenols (in mandarin and cedarwood oils), nitrogen compounds (in lavandin and petitgrain oils) and sulfur compounds (in buchu, galbanum, black currant bud and rose oils). These constituents can possess high odour intensities and low threshold values. They reveal characteristic olfactive and organoleptic properties or are able to modify the overall sensorY properties of the end product in a significant way.

PERSONAL AUTHOR: Rothenberger,-R.
TITLE: Ancient tree industry Frankincense and myrrh.
SOURCE: J-Arboric.(Journal of Arboriculture) Urbana, International Society of Arboriculture. Dec 1978. v. 4 (12) p. iii. .

One may greatly expland their search on the internet if they broaden the subject area to include subjects like Plants in the Bible, incense, Oman, Dhofar Valley, etc. One must be very creative and think of all the words which relate to the subject of frankincense.

Having explored the internet resources one, if they are truly dedicated to the subject may venture off to their local library and if they are very fortunate do research in a large university facility. Most libraries small and great have access to interlibrary loan and one can search by subject for titles on frankincense. There are not a great number of books written specifically on frankincense but one may find some of the classic titles like those mentioned at the beginning of the article. Of equal importance to the books themselves is the bibliography printed in the back. One of the true treasures of in-depth research are bibliographies. The books and articles listed within them often can lead one to information which can shed light on some particular point that is only generally addressed in other texts. There is also a growing body of knowledge coming out of the aromatherapy community. Almost every book contains some indivdual monograms on individual plants and their oils. Some are more comprehensive than others in terms of the number of oils listed and detailed information about them, but a thorough examination of some of the more well-researched ones will give information about the uses of the oils for physical, emotional, mental and spiritual balancing. As the subject of frankincense can easily be researched in aromatherapy literature, I will not repeat here what has already been said by other in a much better way than I can. One has to be resourceful and persistent to slowly uncover the many layers of any one subject but it is a rich and rewarding experience and, if done properly, can benefit not only oneself but many others as well.

Along with the digital and written information on frankincense, it is also possilbe for devoted researcher to procure samples of the different species of frankincense from various reliable aromatherapy oil suppliers. Not only may they procure the different essential oils but ones prepared as C02 extracts, phytonic extracts, and solvent/alcohol extracts. There are dozens of companies offering the oils in their different forms and by doing an olfactory analysis of each one gains a type of practical education which brings one closer to the information contained in written documentation.

The crowning joy of all intensive research though, is to actually visit the countries, people and places where aromatic plants are grown, harvested and distilled. Each person may have affinities for one or perhaps many plants, but the full impact of the wonderful creations which they are in the manifested form of an essential oil, absolute, attar, resinoid, concrete, etc. can be best understood only when one stands in the environments which they grow. Many people think that such a journey is beyond their capacity, and in some cases this may be so because of some physical reason, but one may be surprised to find what doors open up when a subject is approached with deep reverence and respect. That type of positive energy may find a sympathetic response in that part of the world where the plants of ones dreams are growing. I speak from a deep personal experience of this matter. For twenty years I studied about the exotic flowers of India, and tried numerous times to enter that world from different angles. Obstacles appeared in the path at many places but an inner interest in the subject always remained burning. Finally that connection was made through which this fascinating world could be entered. The experiences that have unfolded since that time have been far more beautiful than my most fanciful imaginings on the subject and my life has been enriched in ways that I could have never forseen. Twenty years of thinking, planning and studying may seem like a long time, but it now appears to me to be the cheapest of bargins.