Europe In The Central Middle Ages

Revival And Reform In The Christian Church

1. Monastic Revival

	Two Tensions In Monastic History

		The Inward Concerns Of Its Own Life And The Salvation Of Its Members

			Leads To Concern For Communal Activity And Communal Worship

			This Is The Emphasis Of St Benedicts Rule

		The Performance Of Some Special Function In The Outer World

			Looks For Special Function Of The Monastic Community Within 
			The Wider World Around It

			The Franciscan Order Was More Concerned With This Type Of Work

	With The Breakup Of Charlemagne's Empire, The Influence Of Monasticism 
	Also Decreased

	The Viking Attacks Later Destroyed Many Monasteries And Their Educational 	Function

	Cluny

		The Re-Establishment Of Monasticism Began When Cluny Was Formed In 
		909 By Donation Of Duke William Of Aquitane


		Manual Labor De-Emphasized

		Liturgical Development Emphasized More

		Cluny Became Independent Of The Jurisdiction Of Local Bishops By 
		Papal Grant C. 999

		They Were Also Not Controlled By Secular Leaders By The Original 
		Grant Of Duke William 

		The Early Abbots Of Cluny Berno And Odo Were Good Managers Who Were 
		On Good Terms With Both Secular And Religious Leaders

		Set High Standards Of Celibacy And Resistance To Simony

		Daughter Houses Formed Under The Authority Of The Abbot Of Cluny

	Rich Gifts Given Monasteries By Lay People Caused Monastic Life To Be 
	Luxurious

		Spiritual Influence Decline

	Cistercian Order Formed To Return To Simple Life

		Attracted Bernard And Following In 1112

		Had Significant Influence On Church And Society Until They Too 
		Became Wealthy And Powerful

2. Normal Practice Regarding Churches

	Church Leaders Were Vassals Of A Secular Overlord For The Property That 
	Supported Them

		Cluny Was An Exception To This Rule

	The Secular Lords Expected To Be Able To Appoint Their Own Vassals 
	Including The Bishops And Abbots Who Owed Allegiance To Them

	Following Their Selection, Bishops Were Given Symbols Of Their Office 
	(Ring And Staff) By The King Through An Investiture Ceremony

3. Papal Reform

	Basic Principles Of Reform

		Eliminate Simony 

			Particularly Troublesome As Church Administered The 
			Sacraments And Thus Seen As Selling The Sacraments

		Eliminate Clerical Marriage And Concubinage

			Traditional Practice Accepted Clerical Marriage In Most 
			Countries

		Enforce The Primacy Of The Popes

			Tradition Of Papal Independence With Emperors Viewed As Pope's 
			Protectors

	Papal Reformers Demanded Freedom Of Churches From Secular Control

	Leo IX

		Pope 1049 To 1054

		Effective Beginning Of Papal Reform

		Reorganized Papal Government To Focus More On Control Of The Western 
		Church Than Local Interests In Rome

		Began Practice Which Resulted In The College Of Cardinals

		Lateran Synod Of 1059 Decreed Cardinals Were To Be Electors Of Popes

		Roman Clergy Then Gave Formal Acclamation

5. Gregory VII	(Hildebrand)

	Probably Spent Some Time At Cluny

	Dedicated To Making Church Independent Of Secular Control

		Had A Strong Sense Of Responsibility And Authority As Pope

		Also Obstinate And Overbearing

	Believed That Germany Especially Was In Need Of Reform

The Investiture Conflict

1. The Issues

	Two Systems Of Authority In Medieval Times

		Temporal Authority Granted To Lay Nobles

		Spiritual Authority Granted To The Clergy

	Church Argued That Since Spiritual Needs Are More Important Than Temporal, 
	The Clergy Perform The More Important Function

		Papal Claims Of Gregory Contained In Dictatus Papae Of 1075

	The Secular View

		Charlemagne Had Sat In Judgment On Pope Leo

		Also Resolved Doctrinal Issues

		Henry III Had Deposed Three Popes Only A Generation Earlier

	In Reality Both Orders Needed The Other To Maintain Good Order

2. Breach Between Pope And Emperor

	In 1075, Gregory Published First Decree Against Lay Investiture

		Ring Symbol Of Episcopal Ordination And The Staff Of Bishops 
		Pastoral Care

		Thus The Symbolism Offensive To Reformers

	In 1076 At Worms, A Number Of German Bishops Who Had Been Invested By 
	Henry IV Met And Deposed Gregory

	Henry Claimed As Anointed King, He Was Exempt From The Jurisdiction Of The 
	Pope

	Gregory Answered By Excommunicating And Deposing Henry

	Henry Then Faced Rebellion In Germany

	Henry Crossed The Alps And Met The Pope At Canosa And Submitted To Him

		Henry Swore To Submit To Gregory's Judgment On The Dispute In 
		Germany Or Come To An Agreement With The Rebels By Gregory's Council

	Henry Restored To Communion And Office Held In Suspension Pending Judgment

	Papal Autonomy And Perhaps Supremacy Seemed Within Reach

	With Lifting Of Ban, Pope No Longer Of Use To German Noblemen And Bishops 
	In Rebellion

		They Elected A New King, Rudolf Duke Of Swabia, To Replace Henry

		Pope Gregory Could Not Support Rudolf Because Henry Still Awaited 
		Judgment Which He Avoided

	Henry Again Excommunicated And Deposed By Gregory In 1080


		Gregory Forecast Henry's Death Or Defeat In Months

		Instead, Rudolf Died

	Henry Then Proceeded Against Gregory

		Deposed By German Nobles And Bishops

		Archbishop Of Ravenna Elected As Pope And Took The Name Clement III

		From Then On Henry Elected His Own Popes

		Not Generally Accepted By Non-Germans

	In 1080's Henry Was At The Height Of His Power

		Captured Rome In 1084 And Most Supporters Deserted Gregory

	Gregory Fled To Italian Norman Robert Guiscard Where He Died In May 1085

	Not Until 1089 Was Gregory's Successor Urban II Was Established In Rome 
	Again

	Henry IV Never Acknowledged Him As Pope And Thus Lost Out On The Chance To 
	Take Part In The Crusades Organized By Urban 

	The Investiture Controversy Was Settled By Concordat Of Worms In 1122

		Henry V Agreed To Give Up Investiture With Ring And Staff

		Retained Right To Be Present At Elections And Settle Disputes

		Bishops Paid Homage For Secular Land

	Urban II Reorganized The Government Of The Church

		Administrative And Financial Bureaucracy Set Up In Papal Curia

		Legates Held Council Throughout Church To Enforce Papal Law And 
		Decrees

		Appeals To Rome Encouraged

		Growth Of Papal Power And Influence Led To Loss Of Moral Authority 
		And Stature

The Crusades

1. Previous Resistance To Islam

	Tradition Of Resistance To Islam Begun By Charlemagne In His Campaign In 
	Spain

2. Byzantine Background

	Byzantine Forces Defeated By Seljuk Turks At Manzikert In 1071 Opening 
	Anatolia To Turkish Occupation

	Sultanate Of Rum (Rome) Built By The Turks In Central Anatolia

	Emperor Alex Comnenus Requested Mercenaries In Letter To Pope Urban II To 
	Help In Attack On The Turks In Anatolia

3. The First Crusade

	Request For Aid From Alex Comnenus In 1095 Seen By Urban As An Opportunity 
	To Regain Leadership Of The Church 

	Called For Crusade To Reconquer Jerusalem From The Muslims

		Provided Means By Which Christians Could Fight Against Non 
		Christians And Receive The Blessings Of The Church

		Full Indulgence Given To Those Who Took Crusader Oath

		Material Advantages Promised Crusaders

			Protection Of Families And Property

			Chance Of Loot

			Chance Of Property In The East For Nobility

	The Conquest Of The Holy Land

		One Army Made A Difficult Crossing Of Anatolia

		Rum Turks Attempted One Battle And Were Beaten Off

		Mountainous Country Was Difficult To Cross

	Bohemond Took Antioch And Then Withstood Siege Of Muslim Army From Mosul

	Baldwin Of Boulogne Followed Another Route Further East And Established A 
	Principality At Edessa

	Jerusalem Captured In 1099

		Glorious Slaughter Of The Inhabitants

		Relieving Egyptian Army Defeated

	Geodfrey Of Lorraine Given Title Pinceps And Protector Of The Holy 
	Sepulchre

	In 1100, Geodfrey Was Succeeded By His Brother Baldwin Who Took The Title 
	King Of Jerusalem

	Most Of The Crusaders Prayed At Jerusalem And Then, Having Completed Their 
	Pilgrimage, Returned Home

	Remaining Barons Set Up As Lords Of The Occupied Territory Of Palestine 
	And Syria

		They Were Opposed By  Orthodox Christians Of Byzantium, Sunni 
	Muslims In The Turkish States And Shiite Muslims In Egypt

		Fortunately For Crusaders, Their Enemies Would Never Combine Against 
		Them

	Latent Prejudice Against Jews Broke Into Open In Crusades Leading To 
	Slaughter Of Many Innocent People Especially In Central Europe

4. The Second Crusade

	Islamic Resurgence

		Edessa Captured By Emir Of Mosul In 1144

		Caused Call For Second Crusade In Europe By St Bernard To Protect 
		Jerusalem

		Only Permanent Accomplishment Was Conquest Of Lisbon In Portugul By 
		English Crusaders

		Secondarily Rid Europe Of Many Of Its Most Violent And Disruptive 
		Nobles

5. The Third Crusade

	At Hattin In July 1187, The Crusader Army Was Defeated By The Muslims 
	Under Saladin

	Jerusalem Surrendered In October 1187

	Loss Of Jerusalem Led To Call For Third Crusade

	Fredrich Barbarossa Of Germany, Richard Lionhart Of England And Philip II 
	Of France Led The Crusader Armies

		Problems Same As Previous Crusades

		Byzantines And The Climate Hostile

		Leaders Not United And Quarreled Among Themselves

		Acre Captured But Could Not Make Progress Away From The Coast

	Saladin Agreed With Richard To Allow Christian Pilgrims To Visit Jerusalem 
	In Peace

6. Effects Of First Crusades

	Reasons For Crusades

		Protect Jerusalem From Infidel Muslims

		Fear Of Further Turkish Victories In Anatolia

		Papal Hopes For Reunification Of East And West

		Land Hunger On Part Of Younger Sons

		In The End None Of These Were Met More Than Temporarily

	Results Of Crusades

		Widened Geographic And Mental Horizons Of Europe

		Helped Stabilize European Society

			Directed Violent Energies Overseas

		Expanded Trade To Support Crusaders

			Venice, Genoa And Pisa Benefited Most

			Provided Most Transport And Supply

		Increased Power Of Women As Many Left Home To Manage Estates Of 
		Crusader Husbands

	Significant Cost Of Crusades

		Led To Muslim Bitterness Toward Christians

		Significant Loss Of Life Among Europeans

		Justified Violent War For Religious Purposes

	As Result Of Capture Of Constantinople In 4th Crusade, The Split Between 
	The Eastern And Western Churches Begun In 1054 Was Made Permanent

	Later Crusades No More Effective	

The Expansion Of Latin Christendom

1. Northern And Eastern Europe

	Christianity Spread To Scandinavia From Germany And England

	Diocese Of Hamburg-Bremen Influential Early Especially In Denmark 

	English Church Active In Norway And Sweden

	Christianity Spread From Norway To Iceland In 1000 During Reign Of Olaf 
	Trygvasson

	Otto I Established Diocese Among Slavs In North Eastern Europe

		Teutonic Knights Crusaded Here Instead Of Going To Palestine

		Bohemia, Poland And Hungary Strongly Influenced

2. The Spanish Reconquista

	Centuries Long Effort To Retake Spain From Muslims

	By 1085 Alphonse IV Of Castile And Leon Took Toledo

	Cordoba And Seville Taken By Ferdinand Of Castile And Leon By 1248

	Only The Muslim State Of Granada Left

	With The Reconquest, The Roman Church Was Established Throughout Spain

	Bishoprics And Monasteries Returned

	Christians Took Over Muslim Cities And Trade

	Granada Not Taken Until Ferdinand And Isabella Combined Their Forces In The 
	Late 1400's

3. Toward A Christian Society

	By 1300 Christianity Was The Shared Cultural Heritage Of Europeans

	Loyalty To The Pope In Rome Common

	Papacy Recognized As The Nerve Center Of Christian Europe

	Religion Replaced Tribe And Ethnic Origin As The Center Of European 
	Culture

Medieval Origins Of The Modern State

1. Introduction

	Modern State Did Not Exist After Fall Of Roman Empire

	Political And Military Power Spread Among Local Lords

	Overlapping Layer Of Loyalty To Local Lords, Counts, And Kings

	Medieval Rulers At All Levels Attempted To Increase Public Order Through 
	Better Communication With Their People

	Also Wanted To Increase Their Revenue

	Their Solutions Laid The Foundations Of The Modern State	

2. Definition Of Modern State

	Has An Organized Territory Whose Limits Are Recognized By Other States

	Actions Of State Guided By Limits Of Law

	Provides Order And Protection So Citizens Can Perform Daily Activities

	Conducts Relations With Foreign Governments

	To Accomplish Its Function, A State Needs Officials, Laws, Military, 
	Information And Money 

3. Unification And Communication

	England

		William The Conqueror Distributed English Land And Office To His 
		Followers

		Kept English Institutions

			Sheriff Continued As Kings Representative In The Shires

			Anglo-Saxon Writs Continued To Be used

		Conducted Survey Of Wealth Of England Completed In 1085

			Doomsday Book Provided Information To Exploit The Resources Of 
			England

		William And His Heirs Also Controlled Much Of Present Day France

	France

		In 1100's Political Power In France Fragmented

		Many Local Rulers Governed Autonomously

		French Kings Only Governed Territory Around Paris Called The Ile de 
		France

		Unification Of France Begun By Philip II (Augustus) Around 1200

		By 1300 His Descendents Had Control Of Most Of Modern French 
		Territory

		Philip's Method Of Governing

			Each Local Province Retained Its Own Institutions And Laws

			Royal Agents In Provinces Acted For King

			Unlike English Sheriffs, They Were The Kings Men, Not Locals

		Results Was A High Degree Of Centralization With A Variety Of Local 
		Customs Accepted

	Germany

		Germany Left Shattered By Investiture Controversy

		Territory Split Into Many Independent Political Elements

		German Kings Did Not Have Royal Domain To Provide Income

		Also No Accepted Principle Of Succession

			Death Of King Usually Led To Civil War And Anarchy

		German Kings Involvement In Italian Affairs Distracted Them From 
		Governing At Home

		Result Was Little Centralization

			Territorial Lords Held Most Power

			Emperor Shared Power With Local Rulers

		Little Effective Central Power During This Time Frame

4. Law And Justice

	German Law In 12th And 13th Centuries An Assortment Of Local Customs And 
	Practices

	France	

		French Provinces Retained Their Own Legal Practices

		Royal Judicial System On Top Of Local Ones

		Parliament Of Paris Served As Royal Court And Appeals Court From 
		Local Judiciary

		Royal Justice Seen As Superior And Thus French People Appealed To It

		Louis IX (C. 1250) Published Laws For Whole Kingdom

	England

		Henry II Developed Common Law Effective Over Whole Country

		Royal Circuit Judges Sent To Hear Cases In Local Areas

		Gradually Royal Law Took Jurisdiction Over Property And Criminal 
		Actions

		Criminal Guilt Or Innocence Customarily Determined By Oath Helpers

		When No Oath Helpers Present, Trial By Ordeal

			Hot Water And Hot Iron Common

			Administered In And By Church

			After Lateran Council Of 1215 Forbade Church Participation In 
			Ordeal, Royal Justice Was Secularized

			Trial By Local Jury Gradually Accepted

		Attempt To Bring Clergy Under Royal Law Failed In Dispute With 
		Thomas Becket

		King John Forced To Accept Magna Charta After Failures Of Wars Led 
		Him To Extremes In Attempts To Extract Money

			Great Charter Became Cornerstone Of English Law

			King As Well As Everyone Else Under The Law

			Set Standards For Acceptable Process Of Law And Punishment

			Future English King Reissued The Charter At Beginning Of Their 
			Reigns As Evidence Of Their Intent To Obey The Law And Custom

		English Law Developed Differently From Continental Law Which 
		Continued To Use The Justinian Code As Its Basis

5. Dealings With The Jews

	Since Christians Were Not Allowed To Charge Interest From Other 
	Christians, Jew Often Served The Role Of Bankers And Money Lenders In 
	Medieval Times

	Welcomed In Early Settlements Because Of Their Business Knowledge And 
	Capabilities

	By 13th Century This Changed

		Indebtedness To Jews By Peasants And Nobility Led To Increasing 
		Antisemitism

		Crusades Fed This Intolerance

		Lateran Council Of 1215 Forbade Jews From Holding Public Office And 
		Restricted Their Financial Dealings

		Jews Expelled From England In 1290 And From France In 1302

Economic Revival

1. The Rise Of Towns

	Growth Of Towns Driven By Peasant Movement

		Younger Sons, Those Forced To Move By War And The Adventurous

	Some Towns Grew Out Of Old Roman Forts, Or The Anglo-Saxon Fortress Towns
	Originally Formed As Protection Against Viking Raids

	Trade, Especially Sea Ports Attracted People

	Restoration Of Order In The 11th And 12th Centuries Opened Trade Routes 
	AgainAnd Led To Growth Of Towns

		Growth Indicated By Expansion Of City Walls

		Cologne Example: 185 Hectares In 1107 To 320 By 1180
		With An Estimated Population in 1180 of 32,000

		Paris, Milan, Venice And Florence Each Had About 80,000

	Merchants Pursuit Of Money Did Not Meet Approval Of Nobility Or Church

	Peasants Also Suspicious Of City Dwellers

2. Town Liberties And Town Life

	Liberties Were Privileges Granted To Towns

		Allowed Them To Trade Without Interference of Nobility

		Also Granted That If A Person Lived In A Town For A Year And A Day
		They Were Free Of Other Feudal Obligations

		Citizens Of Towns Exempt From Taxes And Tolls Others Paid In Their 
		Markets

		Eventually Towns Were Given The Right To Have Their Own Law And 
		Enforce It

		These Liberties Were Granted (And Renewed) By Noblemen And Kings In 
		Exchange For A Fee

	Merchant Guilds Developed To Control Their Crafts

		Butchers, Metal Smiths, Bakers, Etc Each Had Their Own Guild

		Controlled Requirements Of Entry Into The Trade Through 
		Apprenticeships

		Controlled Quality And Prices Of Goods Produced By Members

		Also Served As Social And Religious Organizations

			Burial Insurance, Pay Form Members On Pilgrimage, Drinking 
			Club, Etc

	Women Formed An Important Part Of The Labor Force

		Assisted Their Husbands In Their Trade

		As Widows, Managed Businesses Themselves

		Craft Guilds Such As Silk And Wool Trades Dominated By Women

		In General, Women Received Lower Wages Than Men

	Jews Especially Served As Money Lenders

		Many Of Those Engaged In Money Lending Were Women

		In Some Places, This Was The Only Occupation Allowed To Jews

	1157 Charter Of Henry II To Merchants Of Lincoln Show Some Of The Rights 
	Granted To Towns And Guild Merchants			Page 386

	Cities Surrounded By Walls With Gates That Controlled Entry

		Merchandise Was Inspected On Entry And Tolls Collected

		Part Of Toll Went To Lord Of The Land, Remainder To City Government

		With Limited Space Inside City, Buildings Had Two And Three Floors 
		ArchingOver The Streets

		Wood And Thatch Construction Made Fire A Regular Hazard

	Little Town Planning Involved As Cities Grew

		Air And Water Pollution Severe

		Garbage Collection Non Existent So It Was Dumped In The Streets

		Animal Ordure Also Wound Up In The Streets

	People Still Gathered In The Cities Because They Offered Personal Freedom, 
	Social Mobility And Economic Opportunity

3. The Revival Of Long Distance Trade

	Risks Of Long Distance Trade

		Shipwreck And Piracy At Sea

		Danger Of Attack By Thieves On Land

	Merchants Gathered In Companies To Share Risks

		Groups Of People Pooled Their Resources To Spread The Risk

		Shared The Profits If The Enterprise Was Successful

	Italian Cities Dominated Trade With Asia Through The Mediterranean

	Major Cities On Land Trade Routes Through France And Into England Served 
	As Centers Of Exchange In Their Markets

	Wool Was The Major English Trade Item In The Later Middle Ages

		Mills In Flanders And Italy Imported English Wool

		Later A Domestic Cloth Industry Developed

		Wool Traders Grew Rich On This Exchange

4. The Commercial Revolution

	Credit Organizations Set Up To Facilitate Trade Like Today's Banks

	Letters Of Credit Eliminated The Effort And Risk Of Carrying Gold Or 
	Silver

	Medieval Businessmen Had All The Traits Of Modern Capitalists

		Use Of Capital To Make More Money

		Willingness To Risk For Profit

		Competitive Spirit

		Variety Of Enterprises

		Result Could Yield Large Profits

	The German Hanseatic League Formed To Monopolize Trade In The Baltic

		Branched To Southern Germany And Italy By Land And Western Europe By
		Sea

		Developed Factories In Major Cities To Store Goods And Run Their 
		Trade

		Obtained Trade Concessions In Some Cities For Exemption From Tolls, 
		Etc

		By Late 13th Century The League Developed The Business Register For 
		Public Accounting And A League Guarantee Of Their Debts

	By Cooperative Methods The Merchant Classes Of Europe Wielded An 
	Influence Well Beyond Their Numbers

	The Commercial Revolution Made Available New Products As Well As Provided 
	High Living Standard For The Merchants

	An Alliance With This Rising Middle Class Enable Some Kings To Defeat The 
	Feudal Lords In Their Countries And Develop Modern States

	The Growth Of Cities And The Opportunities In Them Also Enabled Many To 
	Escape Serfdom And Led To Its Eventual Disappearance From Western Europe

	These Middle And Late Medieval Commercial Changes Laid The Groundwork For 
	Later Urban Developments

Summary

1. The First European Civilization

	Developed In Europe Between 732 And 843

	Christian, Feudal And Latin

	Significant Cooperation Between Kings And The Church

2. Civilization In Decay And Renewal

	Civil War Among The Descendants Of Charlemagne And Attacks By Vikings, 
	Magyars And Muslims Destroyed Central Political Power And Thus The
	Cooperation Among People

	Government Decentralized And Consisted Of Many Small Dukedoms, Etc

	Long Distance Trade Destroyed

	Conditions Began To Improve About 1000

		Better Weather Conditions

		Increased Mechanization

		Result In Larger Crops And More Food Available To People

	Church Reform Led To A Struggle For Control Between Church And Kings

	The Church Became The Major Political And Religious Power In The 10th And 
	11th Centuries

	Centralized Bureaucracies Were Built By The Kings Of England And France To 
	Extend Their Control Over The Nobility

	Through The Institutions Developed In This Process They Came Into Contact 
	With More Of The Middle Class People

	The Rise Of Commercial Activity Provided Social Mobility And Allowed The 
	Middle Class Towns Men A Say In Their Own Affairs

	The Mood In Europe About 1200 Was Generally Optimistic