EDUCATION  REFORM

by

RESEARCHER-WRITER

Herbert R. Rinder *

* Listed in Year 2000 Marquis Who’s Who in the World: “Inclusion in a Marquis Who's Who publication is limited to those individuals who have demonstrated outstanding achievement in their own fields of endeavors and who, thereby, contributed significantly to the betterment of contemporary society.”

Other works of the author include manuscripts on such subjects as, psychology, philosophy, religion, the physical sciences, and social issues. The list of works may be accessed at:
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/listwrks.htm.

March 2000

Preface

Education is the means by which a society hands down from one generation to the next its knowledge, culture, and values. A thorough education consists not only of the acquisition of knowledge, but the physical, mental, emotional, moral, and social development of the individual, as well. At various times during history, the job of educating others has fallen to family members, to the church, or to professionally trained teachers in formal schools. However, in this high-tech era, special, high quality education is required if America is to maintain its position in the world of nations. This paper focuses on reform in teaching techniques, and addresses the following topics: (1) Historic view of education; (2) Need for education reform; (3) Implementation of reform; (4) Advantages, disadvantages and obstacles to reform; and (5) Recommendation.

HISTORIC VIEW OF EDUCATION

The function of the earliest educational systems was primarily to teach religion and to promote the traditions of the people. The temple schools of ancient Egypt taught not only religion, but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. In ancient India, much of the education was carried on by priests, who taught the Buddhist doctrines that later spread to various countries of the Far East. In ancient China, philosophy, poetry, and religion were taught in accord with the teachings of Confucius and other philosophers.

The education systems of ancient Greece highly valued physical training and stressed gymnastics as well as mathematics and music. The early Greek aim was to prepare intellectually well-rounded young people to take leading roles in the activities of the state and of society, and the concepts they formulated served in later centuries as the basis for the liberal arts, philosophy, aesthetic ideals, and gymnastic training. The Romans in ancient times often appointed Greeks as teachers of Roman youth, both in Rome and in Athens. The Romans considered the teaching of rhetoric and oratory important, with orators being trained in the study of language, literature, philosophy, and the sciences, with particular attention to the development of character. Roman education provided the Western world the Latin language, classical literature, engineering, law, and the administration and organization of government.

The ancient Jewish traditions of the Old Testament also played an important role in formation of later education systems. The foundation of Jewish education is the Torah (the Biblical books of mosaic law) and the Talmud, which set forth the aims and methods of education among Jews. Jewish parents were urged by the Talmud to teach their children such subjects as ethics, vocational knowledge, swimming, and a foreign language. During the Middle Ages (5th-16th century), the early educational systems of the nations of the Western world emanated from the Judea-Christian religious traditions, which were combined with traditions derived from ancient Greece philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Christianity in the Middle Ages became a powerful force in the countries of the Mediterranean region and other areas in Europe. Many monastic schools, as well as municipal and cathedral schools, were founded during the centuries of early Christian influence. Teachings centered on grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. During the Middle Ages, the chief storehouse of learning were the monasteries, which maintained archives that preserved many manuscripts of the preceding classical culture, and during this period universities were established in several countries, such as Italy, Spain, France and England. Medieval education also took the form of apprenticeship training in some craft or service. As a rule, however, education was the privilege of the upper classes, and most members of the lower classes had no opportunity for formal learning.

During the Renaissance period (14th-17th century) educators emphasized such subjects as history, geography, music, and physical training, and taught mostly in Latin grammar schools. Beginning around the 16th century, European education began to penetrate into Africa, Asia, the western hemisphere, and other parts of the world. Educational institutions in Central and South America and portions of North America were established in accordance with the works of educators from Spain and Portugal, while those in the US and Canada drew upon educators from England and France. During the 17th century there was a rapid growth of scientific knowledge, which gave rise to its inclusion in courses in the universities of the European countries and led to the exchange and spread of scientific and cultural ideas throughout Europe.

During the 19th century, national school systems began to be organized in England, France, Germany, Italy, and other European countries. Newly liberated nations of Latin America, like Argentina and Uruguay, modeled their schools after those of Europe and the United States. Japan, which was becoming more Westernize, drew on the experience of European countries and the United States in its establishment of a school and university system. The 19th century was also the time when missionary work in the undeveloped areas of the world increased greatly, particularly in Africa and Oceania, which helped to spread education. Education in colonial areas, like India, usually was encouraged by the administrative authorities. However, the vast majority of the peoples in colonial and underdeveloped regions of the world received little, if any, formal education.

During the 20th century, the educational systems of the industrial nations expanded, and there was an emergence of school systems among the newer, developing nations in Asia and Africa. Although compulsory elementary education now has become nearly universal in most nations, there is evidence that perhaps 50 percent of school age children throughout the world are not attending school. In order to improve education at the elementary and adult levels, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has inaugurated literacy campaigns and other educational projects. The aim of this organization is to eliminate illiteracy by putting every child everywhere into schools. Some progress has been made, but it is becoming evident that it will take considerable time, efforts, and funds to produce universal literacy.

NEED FOR EDUCATION REFORM

Although the US is the most prosperous nation in the world, its education system is far from being the most proficient. In a press release dated November 20, 1996, the US Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley, cited the findings drawn from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) as:

• Eighth grade mathematics classes in the US are not as advanced and not as focused as those in Japan and Germany.

• Topics taught in US eight grade mathematics classrooms are at a seventh grade level by international standards.

• The content of US mathematics classes requires less high level thought than classes in Germany and Japan.

• US mathematics teachers’ typical goal is to teach student how to do something, while Japanese teachers’ goal is to help them understand mathematical concepts.

The press release went on to say:

The study found that common culprits such as, television watching and lack of time devoted to study, could not account for the below average US math scores. Heavy TV watching was found to be about as common in Japan -- one of the highest scorers -- and US students actually spend more classroom time on math and science than students in both Japan and Germany.

According to Secretary Riley, “The data appears to be telling us that we need to examine what’s actually going on in the school and the classroom.”

The need for education reform is reflected not only in international statistics, but also in the large number of high school dropouts (see Figures 1 & 2). The percentage of high school graduates compared to the 17 year old population has not increased in the last 20 years, and actually decreased in the 1970s. The highest high school graduate rate was 77% in the 1968-69 school year, which decreased to 73% in 1974-75. This indicates that from 23% to 27% of the 17th years students over the period did not graduate high school, but these were not necessarily dropouts; some may have graduated at a later age.

High school graduates compared with population 17 years of age:
School years 1968-69 to 1994-95

[Numbers in thousands]

Figure 1. Selected data, high school graduates. Source: U.S. Department of Education,
               National Center for Education Statistics.

Percentage of high school dropouts among persons 14 to 19 years old,
by age, sex and race/ethnicity: October 1970 to October 1994

¹White and black include persons of Hispanic origin.

Figure 2. Percentage of high school dopouts. Source: US Dept. of Commerce,
                Bureau of Census, Population Survey.

Figure 1. shows that in the 1994-95 school year the total high school population of 17 years olds consisted of 3.477 million students, and of these, 27% (938,800) did not graduate that school year. Figure 2 shows that in 1994 the dropout rate of the 16-17 years old students was 5.0%, or about 173,900 students, leaving a remainder of about 764,900 of those 17 years olds who didn't graduate at age 17, and who may have continued on in high school to the age of 18 and 19.

Figure 2. gives the dropout rate of 18-19 years old students as 13.4%, so an additional 102,500 will have dropped out from the group not graduated at age 17. Therefore the total number of annual dropouts for the 16-19 years old group is about 276,400, or 8% of the 17 years old student population that should have graduated by the age 19.

Thus, there are over a quarter million students each year who have no hope of economic success, unless they somehow further their education. Where are they going to find employment to support themselves and their families as they grow older? Soon, even fast food servers like McDonald’s will be using computers. Already, delivery persons for DHL are required to keep records on small computers, which they carry with them.

Although some tests have shown an improvement in students’ test performance, this is misleading. It masks the fact that only those who are still in school are tested, ignoring the fact that those who have dropped out are not included. It should also be noted that the data in the tables from which the dropout rate is calculated is an average rate that varies from place to place. For instance, the current secondary school dropout rate in Chicago has been estimated to be about 57%. This figure hasn't been verified, but it is well-known that the dropout rate in urban areas is very high, which is conducive to breeding crimes, as well as poverty, in the inner cities.

IMPLEMENTATION OF REFORM

There long has been efforts by educational psychologists to apply scientific methods to the teaching of students in order to increase their scholastic performance. Impetus was given to this after World War II, as schools became filled by the postwar baby boomers, and in the late 1950s, when the United States was engaged in a technological race with the Soviet Union. Because of the wide diversity in human beings, instructional settings, and fields of study, no general theory has been formulated that is applicable to all. However, educational psychologists have developed some pertinent theories concerning education methodology, which are discussed in the following.

At far back as the beginning of the 20th century, education was greatly influenced by the writings of the Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key. Her book The Century of the Child (1900) was translated into many languages and inspired progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching based on the needs and potentials of the child, rather than on the needs of society or the precepts of religion. Also an advocate of progressive education was the American philosopher and educator John Dewey, who was influential in the US, as well as worldwide. He, too, stressed the educational development of the child in terms of individual needs and interests, which became the major method of instruction for many years in elementary schools of the US and other countries.

Another theory advanced was that of the American educator Robert Gagné, who developed a hierarchical theory, that some types of learning are prerequisites to other kinds of learning; so that in learning something there is a sequence of steps that must be followed. And the American behaviorist psychologist Burris F. Skinner (1904-1990) advocated the use of teaching machines in the classroom to increase the efficiency of instructing students. Skinner recommended breaking down the learning of a complex subject into simple steps of increasing difficulty, rewarding the successful completion of each step until the complete subject is finally learned. He developed a technique called "programmed instruction," which breaks down the learning of a complex subject into simple steps of increasing difficulty, and rewards the successful completion of each step until the complete subject is finally learned.

In recent times, attempts have been made to create a system of instructions in schools similar to that suggested by Skinner, called “mastery learning.” This is based on the belief that improved performance of students can be achieved through use of the following procedures:

(1) The curriculum is broken down into logically sequenced units of about two weeks' duration;
(2) the students must pass a test at the end of each unit before proceeding to the next unit;
(3) alternate forms of instruction and tests are available so that students can do remedial work if they fail the first time; and
(4) students determine for themselves the amount of time they need to complete a unit.

This form of instruction is usually successful in courses that stress acquisition of knowledge. Student motivation is also seen as playing a role in the success or failure of the student.

The necessity for changes in the education systems in the US, which has been long recognized by educators, has now become a political football, with both parties outwardly being proponents of increased funding but differing in the method of dispersing the funds. The proposal some have advanced of giving vouchers to attend private schools does nothing to cure the basic problems of public education, and would only destroy it, for reasons that are too lengthy to discuss here. Then, there are those who see the cause of the problem as being the structure of modern society, or inadequate teachers, or think increasing homework is the answer. However, these do not get to the root of the problem, which is the teaching methods currently used.

Recently, the President and politicians of both parties, as well as educators, have advocated that every student, even those in elementary school, have access to a computer. But what are they going to do with it? Use it only as a source of information or, perhaps, to play video games? In this high-tech age, the computer can be used not merely for access to knowledge, but as an education tool. Today a unique opportunity exists for the application of the “mastery learning” technique and the learning principles suggested by Skinner and others. The use of the computer as a teaching tool, as well as a source of information, would greatly enhance its value.

The implementation of computers as teaching machines would require the development of suitable software programs. This could be accomplished by the establishment of a voluntary committee assembled from among the most highly renown educators in the nation, which would meet periodically for the purpose of developing and maintaining a uniform course of study to be used throughout the nation's public school systems (private schools would be welcomed to participate if they desired). Standardized course material would be produced for each grade level of elementary and high school by subject matter (math, reading, etc.), in accordance with the “mastery learning” principles previously mentioned. Required funding of the committee should be obtained from nonprofit organizations and donations, and should exclude government funding, so as to eliminate government control or dependency. However, government funds could be utilized for the construction of required physical facilities and equipment.

Although educators would design the subject matter of the material, its presentation should be by those who have expertise in communications skills, even employing professional actors when necessary; and advertising agencies possibly could be used to determine the best way of get the material across to students. Audiovisual, as well as textual, presentations should be used where appropriate, and the language utilized should be consistent with the level of the material being taught. Each child should have individual headphones, so as not to disturb others. The media employed for distribution of the course material could be computer disks, CD ROMs, or video tapes, utilizing standard VCRs in combination with the web-TV systems now available. The final product should be made available to the States, which then should have the option whether or not to use it.

Utilization of the material in the classroom would entail distributing the appropriate software disks (or other media) to each elementary and high school student. This is to enable the student to work independently at home, as well as in school. The students, elementary or high school, should be allowed to advance at their own speed in each required course in each subject. The student would not be in grade 1, 2, etc., but would be developing at his or her own level in each subject; taking English 101, Math 202, etc., depending upon the student's proficiency in the subject. This is similar to what is done at universities, and there is no reason it should not be done at the lower levels of education.

The subject would be broken down into logically sequenced units, with the students deciding the amount of time he or she needs to complete a unit. At the end of each unit the students would be required to pass a test automatically administered by the computer before proceeding to the next unit. After completing the final unit of a subject, the teacher would give the student a final exam on the subject (in the classroom) from a series of computerized tests for the course. This is to ensure that it is the student that is taking the test. The student would be required to successfully complete certain essential courses in order to get a certificate from the elementary or high school. Before receiving a certificate of completion from the elementary or high school, the student should be allowed to take advanced courses at a higher institution in those courses the student is already proficient.

The role of the teacher would be to clarify and discuss the material with the students, as necessary, and to give the final exams. The teacher should encourage students to form home study groups, which would not only help in learning, but would also performs a social function. No additional homework should be given student, leaving time for the students to provide for his or her other needs. As stated previously, a thorough education consists not only of the acquisition of knowledge, but the physical, mental, emotional, moral, and social development of the individual, as well. The old saying that all study and no play makes Jack a dull boy is more than a cliché, it's a truism. Constant studying is not conducive to good learning, as borne out by the press release cited.

Not all student have the mental capability nor the financial means to continue their education to a higher level. After graduation from an elementary school, such students should be provided vocational training suitable to their inclinations and interest, combined with work programs when appropriate.

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES, AND OBSTACLES TO REFORM

The benefit of the computer program that has been suggested is that it would assure that each student would have mastered a prior unit before advancing to the next. If one has not mastered the basic fundamentals of a subject, the person is lost in trying to understand more advanced concepts concerning the subject.

Also, currently, teaching must be tailored to the average student, presenting problems for both the slower and gifted student. Recently a student on the Oprah Winfrey program stated that she was so bored and unchallenged she was flunking her courses and everyone thought she was stupid. She dropped out of high school at age 16, got a GED diploma, entered college, and graduated with a straight A average. Other students on the Oprah program said that the courses were tailored to those intending to go to college, and were irrelevant to them, as they had no such intention. By utilizing computer teaching, the average and gifted children would be able to proceed mostly on their own, leaving more time available for the teacher to assist the slower students and, perhaps, to determine if any emotional, or home or school environment, problems is the cause of their slow progress.

Computerized teaching also would assure uniform presentation of the material. We have standardized national tests to determine students suitability for college, but we leave it to teachers to determine the quality of their presentations, which may be inadequate. It also eliminates the problem of the student missing important points of a teacher's presentation due to the wandering of the student's mind.

Another advantage is that home study groups could be formed utilizing computer private chat rooms and e-mail facilities, making it more convenient than traveling to meet with one another. Also, parents, as their time permits, would be able to help their children with their study, as the course material would be right there. In addition, by proceeding at their own speed the pressure is taken off students, which is believed to be a cause of teenage suicide.

Also, it would readily permit the incorporation of drug, tobacco, and sexual behavior education courses into the curriculum of, say, health courses. This probably should be introduced as early as the fourth grade (judging by the social behavior of youths on TV talk shows), and the material should be tailored to the normal age of the student at the specific course level. The material should be included progressively throughout all levels of the health courses required, and tests required to be passed, as with any other subject. It should be presented as being concerned with health issues, and should be based only upon facts, excluding scare tactics and moral issues. The course material should be prepared by the national committee, and use actual recovering addicts to lend authenticity.

A disadvantage of the program is that all courses may not be adaptable to being computerized, like music and gym, although the primary courses required in our society would be. Another disadvantage, or obstacle, is that additional funds would have to be allocated for the increased electrical wiring required, and for the computer hardware. However, the funding can be provided out of the existing programs of government agencies, especially since both political parties are strongly claiming to be the “education party;” and computer manufacturers and philanthropic individuals and organizations may also provide funds or hardware equipment.

As a matter of principle, every person should have the opportunity for public education up to the limit of his or her capabilities, and not be limited by financial concerns. This not only would benefit the individual, but the country as a whole, and is an investment in the future of the nation. In the long run, the cost of required programs to do this would be more than compensated for, as America would become a highly productive and world competitive society and, therefore, more prosperous, and have a larger tax base; and crimes and poverty would be reduced.

RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that an appropriate education system, such as that of the City of Chicago, established a pilot program to test the benefits of a computerized teaching system, as that discussed. The program should be tested in a typical elementary and high school for the first two years of the curriculum of each institution, to determine its effectiveness.

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