THE HUMAN MIND

Copyrighted 1996© by Herbert R. Rinder *
All rights reserved.
E-mail Address: rhrrr@aol.com

*Listed in 1998-99 Who's Who in the Midwest

For the first time ever, the physical regions of the brain underlying the systems of Freud's model of the mind have been located. And, it has been concluded that there are three mental systems corresponding to Freud's model that independently produce thought messages. The following material is presented as a public service. Accordingly, permission is granted for it to be copied or disseminated, but only for non-commercial purposes.

Sources used in the investigation of the physical bases of Freud's model of the human psyche were the writings of Freud and various appropriate literature, including findings of studies pertaining to brain damage, and to the effects of split-brain and lobotomy surgery on patients.

It has been deducted that the three mental systems that independently produce thought messages are seated in separate regions of the left cerebral hemisphere of the human brain.

The editor of a prestigious journal published by the American Psychological Association has reviewed the ideas presented herein. He has found them to be interesting, and suggested that a clinical journal might be an appropriate outlet for their expression.

The material is excerpted from a larger manuscript called, "The Human Psyche and The Nature of Man." The manuscript may be accessed by clicking the below.

OTHER PAPERS BY THE AUTHOR (Click below to view document)

THE HUMAN PSYCHE AND THE NATURE OF MAN
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr2/humanpsy.htm

Discusses in easy-to-understand language the functioning of the major elements of the human psyche, such as: the brain; mental systems; memory systems; and the stimulus response system. Also includes discussion of the factors influencing human behavior.

EINSTEIN'S MISTAKE ?
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/einstein.htm

Einstein's relativity theories are presented in a simple, non-mathematical format, and a discussion is presented as to why he may have been mistaken in his belief that space and time are relative, rather than absolute.

SYNOPSIS OF PHILOSOPHIC THOUGHT THROUGHOUT THE AGES http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/philthgt.htm

Summarizes major philosophic thought advanced in both Eastern and Western philosophies over 2500 years of history.

THE NEW TESTAMENT COMPOSITE GOSPEL http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/compgosp.htm

Combines the four gospels of the New Testament into a single gospel that simplifies the understanding of what was really preached by Jesus, without altering any of the text of the original gospels.

FREEDOM OF RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION DECLARATION
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/relgfrd.htm

Presents a draft declaration for the leaders of all religions to promote in their teachings; that it is the inalienable right of all peoples to hold their own religious beliefs without interference from those of another faith.

LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS FOR SOCIAL REFORMS http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/soclrefm.htm

Presents proposals for legislation to promote social justice for all Americans on such issues as taxes, education, drugs, victim rights, etc.

I. Freud's Model

Salient Features of Freud's Model of the Human Psyche

• The Instincts

• The id

• The ego

• The superego

Location Freud's Systems

• Seat of the Superego

• Seat of the Ego

• Seat of the Id

II. Correlation of Freud's Model with the Brain's Mental Systems

The Rational Mind

• Location

• Functions

• The Intellect

The Conscious Mind

• Location

• Function

The Spirited Mind

• Location

• Function

Remarks

Table of References

Author's Profile

I. Freud's Model

It long has been recognized that the human psyche is comprised of several elements, which are often in conflict with one another. Plato viewed the human psyche as consisting of three distinct elements: an element having the capacity to reason and to use language, which distinguishes human beings from other living things; an element driven by the bodily needs, appetites, and desires of human beings; and a spirited element driven by emotions such as, anger, aggression, ambition, and pride.

The elements of reason and the appetites were seen by Plato as being at odds with each other, the latter seeking immediate gratification of its needs, with reason striving to inhibit the appetites. The spirited element was seen as supporting, at times, either one element or the other.

Freud also viewed the human psyche as being composed of three elements, the id, ego, and superego, which are often in conflict with one another. The main characteristics of each of these elements are discussed in the following, which is based upon the published writings of Freud (Freud, 1923/1986), and the publication A Primer of Freudian Psychology (Hall, 1954).

Salient Features of Freud's Model of the Human Psyche

The natural condition of the psyche was seen by Freud as being in a state of quiescence until disturbed or excited by external stimuli, like sounds or visions, or by internal stimuli, like thirst and hunger, which cause the following to occur:

• 1. Perceived and other stimuli incite sensors to discharge energy, producing tension and an unbalance in the steady-state condition of the psyche.

• 2. The tension produced in the psyche by stimuli is experienced by a person as pain, or displeasure; and its reduction is experienced as satisfaction, or pleasure.

• 3. The desire of human beings to be free from pain and to seek pleasure Freud called the "pleasure principle," the goal of which is to maintain the psyche in a state of constancy, or equilibrium.

• 4. The tension caused by some disturbances to the quiescent state of the psyche can be disposed of through automatic reflex responses, such as changes in the size of the pupils of the eyes in response to variations in light intensity, or by sneezing to dislodge an irritant from the nasal passage.

• 5. Other tensions a person experiences, such as those caused by the needs of an individual, can not immediately be reduced automatically, which gives rise to the instincts.

The Instincts

All human endeavors, according to Freud, evolve from the instincts. The instincts are the result of the tension caused by the unfulfilled innate needs and characteristics of human beings, such as the need for food, water, warmth, and sexual gratification; and traits like aggressiveness, self-preservation, and self-destruction.

• 1. The object or means by which an instinct may accomplish its aim of tension reduction is peculiar to the particular instinct; hunger requires food, thirst requires liquids, etc.

• 2. The more the buildup in tension, the greater the satisfaction upon its release. Then another cycle from relaxation to tension begins again, so that there is a tendency for instincts to self-perpetuate themselves.

• 3. As there are a variety of means and objects available that will fulfill the needs of the instincts, various behavioral patterns develop in individuals in the way they satisfy the same instinctual need.

• 4. The instincts in seeking to reduce built-up tensions express themselves through the id.

The id

The id is the seat of the instincts. The primary aim of the id is the release of tension, so as to bring the psyche back to its quiescent state. The id cannot tolerate tension, so demands immediate satisfaction of the need causing it. The id is not concerned with reason nor moral considerations, but is driven only by its desire to alleviate tension through satisfaction of the needs of the instincts. The processes by which the id attempts to reduce tension are:

• 1. Through impulsive reflex actions, like automatically striking out at that which is irritating it, rather than by reasoning, of which it is incapable.

• 2. Through formulating images of that which will satisfy the needs of the individual. The images conjured up in dreams, daydreams, fantasies, and hallucinations were considered by Freud to represent "wish-fulfillments," often appearing in a disguised form. A person dreams and fantasizes about what the person needs or desires. A hungry person will dream about that which represents food; a sexually stimulated person, about sexual activities. Even in our waking hours, when hungry we may form in our minds an image of what will satisfy our hunger.

• 3. The two means available to the id for tension reduction, reflex actions and wish images, are not effective in satisfying such instinctual needs as hunger, which requires the partaking of food. Individuals must look outside of themselves to find food and the other necessities required to sustain life.

• 4. This requires taking into account the realities of the external environment in regard to supplying the needs of an individual. Freud called this the "reality principle." Because the id is limited in this respect, being concerned only with its own needs rather than the realities of the world, another system is required to fulfill this function, the ego.

The ego

Instead of the pleasure principle that governs the id, the ego is ruled by the reality principle. The objective of the ego is to act as an intermediate between the id and the realities of the external world in satisfying the instinctual needs of the individual. In employing the reality principle:

• 1. The ego prevents the release of the energy of the id until the proper outlet for it can be found. For instance, the ego postpones satisfaction of the hunger instinct until suitable food can be found, rather than eating just anything including that which may not be appropriate as food.

• 2. The postponement of action means that the ego has to be able to tolerate the pressure of mounting tension until it can be discharged by an appropriate form of action. The pleasure principle is not abandoned, but merely held in abeyance until a suitable means of expression is found.

• 3. In pursuing its objective of finding the correct environmental outlets for the instincts, the ego utilizes its inherent powers.

• 4. The ego has the capacity to perceive, remember, think, and act. It employs the sense organs and perceptual systems to discriminate among the various stimuli; makes use of prior experiences by extracting information stored in memory; uses language to communicate with others; and utilizes the motor capabilities of the body. Since the ego distinguishes between stimuli that are sensed, it has the property of conscious awareness of stimuli. In addition to formulating theories on the development and roles of the id and ego, Freud took into account the restraints placed on the ego by society.

The superego

Freud assigned to the superego the function of sitting in moral judgment of the behavior of the individual. The superego demands that the ego's performance be nothing less than perfect in complying with the value system of the individual. The superego is concerned with the ideal, rather than pleasure or reality, and Freud referred to it as the ego-ideal, meaning that it is the ideal by which the ego measures itself.

The superego acts as a prohibiting agent, attempting to inhibit and restrict the actions of the ego to that which conform to the ideal ego that has been established. It punishes the ego with a sense of guilt, self-reproach, and remorse when it acts inappropriately, and rewards it with a sense of satisfaction, pride, etc. when it acts correctly.

The stages in the development of the superego are:

• 1. As a young child, the dependency upon parental love and approval for satisfaction of basic needs, and the desire to avoid parental punishment, cause the child to assimilate into his or her value system the moral and social standards of the parents.

• 2. As the child goes older, the child's value system is transformed into the superego, which takes over the role of the parents in rewarding behavior consistent with established ideals, and in punishing the child for actions contrary to them.

• 3. As a mature adult, the values of religious and social institutions, and other authority figures also become incorporated into the superego's sense of right and wrong, as they too have the power to reward or punish the individual.

• 4. The superego, thus, becomes the conscience of the individual, providing a code of conduct for the person to follow. Unlike the ego, which only imposes a waiting period in releasing instinctual energy under the reality principle, the conscience opposes any expression, even by thought, of the id's energy that is contrary to the ideals that have been established.

Although the superego tends to direct the ego's activities toward worthwhile objectives, the id is capable of manipulating the superego into accomplishing its ends. To satisfy its instinct for aggression, for instance, the id may make use of the superego's moralistic views to initiate actions that attack others, like the atrocities that have occurred throughout history by the self-righteous in the name of morality.

Thus, although the superego usually sits in opposition to improper actions, it may be corrupted and identify with the more base needs of the id under the guise of high ideals. Accordingly, the innate needs of an individual may be satisfied in a manner that does good, or in a way that does evil.

The influence each of the elements, the id, ego, and superego, has on the behavior of an individual is dependent upon how they are integrated into the personality of the individual. As there is only a finite quantity of psychic energy available, according to Freud, energy diverted from the id to formulate the ego and superego takes away from the strength of the id. So, a person with a strong ego will look at things more realistically than a person who is highly idealistic. On the other hand, a person with a weak superego and ego will tend to act impulsively regardless of consequences, and without concern for the propriety of the action.

Freud saw the ego as having the responsibility of controlling and governing how the id and superego are expressed, taking into account the requirements of the total personality. When the ego is performing properly, the personality of an individual is well-adjusted and harmonious. But if the id or superego takes over the functions of the ego and dominates the personality, maladjustment and disharmony will ensue.

Essentially, then, the model of the human psyche developed by Freud consists of the id, ego, and superego. The id represents the needs and desires of the instincts of an individual, while the ego's function is to take appropriate actions to satisfy the demands of the id within the limits imposed by the realities of the world, and within the constraints placed upon it by the superego.

Freud did not consider the three systems of the psyche to be separate entities, but viewed them as being the way the different mental processes, or mechanisms, function within the integrated personality of an individual. However, based upon recent studies it is concluded that these systems actually do exist, and as independent mental systems situated in specific regions of the brain.

In the following discussion, which relates to the stated conclusions, propositions are set forth followed by statements that support them. The rationale for some of the statements are based upon the fact that the human brain, as well as the brains of all mammals, consists of two almost physically identical hemispheres known as the "left cerebral hemisphere" and the "right cerebral hemisphere." The two hemispheres are connected by bundles of nerve fibers, which act as a communication network between them.

Location of Freud's Systems

Seat of the Superego

Proposition: The superego is seated in the left prefrontal lobe of the brain.

Supporting statements:

1. On the morning of September 15, 1848 an explosion propelled a three foot iron rod through the left frontal side of the skull and brain of a young railroad construction foreman named Phineas P. Gage. It is said that Gage sat up and spoke coherently within minutes. In the Time-Life Books publication (Posey, Ed., 1990, pp. 32-33) it is stated, "While the physicians examined Gage and cleaned his ghastly wound, he never lost consciousness."

The rod was removed by local doctors, the wound healed, and Gage recovered. However, although Gage was able to speak and move about normally, his whole personality had changed. "From a shrewd, competent, and level-headed businessman, he degenerated into a fickle, foul-mouthed, irresponsible drifter who couldn't hold a job" (Hooper & Teresi, 1986, p. 39).

As indicated in the foregoing, Gage had lost his social values, although he still maintained the faculty of consciousness. Apparently, consciousness and social behavior are governed by different systems of the brain.

The implication of the foregoing account of Gage's personality after his accident is that the left prefrontal lobe (the front part of the brain) is the seat of the superego, since the function impaired by damage to that region of Gage's brain was his social conduct, which is the responsibility of the superego.

2. Another indication that the superego is located in the prefrontal lobe of the brain is the prefrontal lobotomy surgical procedure performed in the 1940s and early 1950s, which involved severing the fibers extending from the brain's frontal lobes to other parts of the brain. The operation succeeded not only in reducing the stressful state of the patients, but also resulted in them assuming an easy going, uninhibited attitude, and a loss of moral standards and intellectual judgment.

The following statement was made in 1948 at the First International Congress of Psychosurgery by a Lisbon neurologist, who drew the following conclusions concerning six recent patients who had prefrontal lobotomy surgery performed upon them:

"The changes of personality were generally serious. In five of the patients could be noticed an affective indifference, a loss of ethical and moral inhibitions, a loss of higher interests, both affective and intellectual, which causes the personalities of lobotomized patients to become much inferior to what they were before lobotomy. . . . " (Valenstein, 1986, p. 117).

Although both left and right prefrontal lobes generally were isolated from the rest of the brain by lobotomy surgery, the statement indicates that the superego is in one or the other prefrontal lobes. As will be discussed in the section on the Rational Mind, there are additional reasons to believe the superego is seated in the left hemisphere.

Seat of the Ego

Proposition: The ego is seated in the left cerebral hemisphere.

Supporting statements:

1. As noted previously, the ego has the property of conscious awareness of stimuli. The cited cases of Phineas Gage and lobotomy patients, verify that the ego possesses the capacity for consciousness, for consciousness remained with them after destruction of their superegos' connections to other parts of the brain.

2. That it is the left hemisphere of the brain in which consciousness occurs is readily establishable. A surgical procedure used to correct certain medical conditions involves the severing of the fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Although the patients appeared to be perfectly normal after the surgery, it was found that under test conditions the patients had no consciousness of stimuli directed to their right hemisphere, but did have conscious awareness of stimuli directed to their left hemispheres.

A typical case that illustrates this is that of a patient, W.J., who upon being tested after the surgery is reported to have easily identified visual and tactile stimuli processed by systems in the left cerebral hemisphere, but not those processed in the right, and even denied seeing the visual stimuli (Gazzaninga, 1985, p. 42).

Thus, since under test conditions patients such as the foregoing had no consciousness of applied stimuli directed to the right cerebral hemisphere, but did have conscious awareness of stimuli directed to the left cerebral hemisphere, it is the latter hemisphere where the process of consciousness occurs. And since the ego possesses the property of consciousness, it therefore must be seated in the left hemisphere.

Proposition: The specific area of the left hemisphere that houses the ego is Wernicke's area, or an area intimately associated it.

Supporting statements:

1. It is generally accepted that the words that are spoken are conceived by Wernicke's area, which is a region in the left hemisphere of the brain. This is confirmed by an article on the brain in the World Book Encyclopedia (Vol. 2, 1993, pp. 565-566) contributed by Richard Restak, Professor of Neurology at Georgetown University Medical School, which states that the words and sentences a person speaks are formulated by Wernicke's area. Since what a person speaks is his or her thoughts, Wernicke's area therefore is where conscious thoughts are produced.

However, we do not have consciousness of our own thoughts until after the thoughts are converted into language, as it is only by the "inner voice" a person hears in his or her head that the person has conscious awareness of his or her thoughts. Since it is only after conversion of thoughts to language by Wernicke's area that consciousness exists, at least of thoughts, Wernicke's area, or some system subsequent to the conversion, must be the site where the ego is located.

2. That the site of the ego is Wernicke's area rather than a subsequent region is indicated by the deficiencies noted in the functioning of Wernicke's area and Broca's area due to aphasia. Aphasia is the loss, or impairment, of the ability to use or to understand speech, which may result from lesions or some other cause. Broca's area is located in the frontal region of the left hemisphere, and receives signals from Wernicke's area instructing it as to the words which are to be spoken. Broca's area, in turn, transmits signals that cause the speech organs to formulate the words and, thus, controls the output of speech.

The following passages indicate that the site of the ego is Wernicke's area rather than a subsequent region, like Broca's area, which is a recipient of signals from Wernicke's area:

"Expressive (or Broca's) aphasia is a deficit involving primarily the patient's own speech; the patient's comprehension of the speech of other remains intact. This type of aphasia is associated with damage to the frontal regions of the left hemisphere controlling speech output, especially Broca's area (see Figure A.7). A patient with Broca's aphasia... Most of these patients seem to understand spoken and written language, so the problem is considered to be at the motor output stage of language rather than in comprehension... Receptive (or Wernicke's) aphasia is a disturbance in which the patient has great difficulty comprehending speech in general. It is associated with damage to the posterior region of the first temporal gyrus (Wernicke's area; see Figure A.7)..." (Springer and Deutsch, 1981, p. 215).

In addition, the previously cited World Book article (p.565) states, "When we hear a word, Wernicke's area interprets the meaning of the sound pattern... "

Thus, the condition affecting Broca's area results in the patient having problems in producing speech, but in having no difficulty in comprehending the speech of others, whereas the condition affecting Wernicke's area results in the patient having great difficulty comprehending the speech of others. This may be because the speech signals are prevented from reaching the part of Wernicke's area that produces consciousness of the sounds they convey. This would indicate that Wernicke's area is where consciousness of the speech of others occurs, rather than in a subsequent area, like Broca's area, which does not affect the comprehension of the speech of others.

Since comprehension and conscious awareness of stimuli are properties of the ego, and Wernicke's area has these capabilities, it may be concluded that the ego is seated in Wernicke's area. Wernicke's area also exhibits other properties attributed to the ego, like utilization of language to communicate with others, for it instructs Broca's area as to the words that are to be spoken, as previously stated.

Seat of the Id

Proposition: There are two different types of needs that activate the instincts of the id, which are expressed through two different systems, one physical and the other mental.

Supporting statements:

1. According to the hierarchy of human needs developed by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow, as presented in Volume 15, Collier's Encyclopedia (Goble, 1993, p. 498), the lower physical needs for air, water, food, shelter, sleep, and sex dominates one's behavior until they are satisfied. Next, comes the person's need for safety and security. These inherent physical needs all have a biological basis.

As human beings become more secure in satisfaction of their physical needs, according to Maslow's hierarchy, they seek to satisfy their inherent nonphysical needs; their need for love, belongingness, self-esteem, and esteem from others, which are also inherent basic needs. When human beings have satisfied all their basic needs, they strive to fulfill such higher needs as truth, order, justice, and beauty.

Thus, there are two different types of needs that activate the instincts of the id; physical and nonphysical. The nonphysical needs may be considered to be emotional needs, as they result in emotional responses to stimuli.

The expression of each type of needs is through separate systems of the brain. The physical needs require a physical system, while the emotional needs require a mental system that has the capacity to generate feelings as well as thoughts, as needs such as self-esteem and love have do with feelings, of which physical systems are incapable.

2. It is well established that physical needs are expressed through actions of nuclei seated in the hypothalamus segment of the brain stem, which automatically respond to impulses from sensors in various parts of the body. The brain stem is one of the three major regions of the brain, and nuclei are groups of brain nerve cells called "ganglia," which have the ability to respond to perceived stimuli. In lower animals, like insects and earth worms, ganglia serve as their brain, and are used to control their behavioral responses to signals received from their sense organs, like those pertaining to feeding. The nuclei in the hypothalamus of human beings produce chemical changes and signals that result in the conscious experiencing of physical sensations, such as thirst and hunger, which are expressions of the physical needs of the id.

3. The expression of nonphysical needs requires a system that not only has the capacity to formulate thoughts and generate feelings about the stimuli, but also has awareness of perceived stimuli. The capacity for awareness of external stimuli is required in order that the thoughts and feelings about the things of the world may be formulated. This is consistent with Freud's view that external stimuli, like sounds and visions, as well as internal stimuli, excite the instincts of the id.

Studies of split-brain patients have shown that there are many regions of the brain that have awareness of stimuli, and which may produce emotional reactions to stimuli without conscious knowledge of the stimuli. However, there is only one area of the brain, the "angular gyrus," that can directly produce both emotional feelings and thoughts in response to external stimuli. The angular gyrus is an area of the brain located in the left hemisphere in close proximity to Wernicke's area.

Proposition: The mental system that expresses the nonphysical needs of the id is seated in the angular gyrus of the left cerebral hemisphere.

Supporting statements:

1. The angular gyrus fulfills the requirement that the mental system of the id must have awareness of external stimuli. This can be concluded from the previous cited World Book article on the brain, which also states (on p. 565): "When we read a word, a brain area called the angular gyrus converts the visual image into its associated sound, which Wernicke's area then interprets." What this means is that as you read the "tree" you automatically hear the sound "tree" in your head. Thus, the angular gyrus fulfills the requirement of having awareness of external stimuli, at least of visual stimuli constituting words.

However, since the systems involved in transmitting visual impulses do not make a distinction between the words that are read and the visual signals of other perceived stimuli, the angular gyrus is not limited to producing auditory signals corresponding to written words; it produces auditory signals in response to all visual perceptions.

There is reason to believe that in addition to visual stimuli, other types of stimuli are also transmitted to the angular gyrus. Heimer (1983, p. 346) in discussing the posterior parietal association cortex, states:

"The supramarginal (area 40) and angular) (area 39) gyri seem to be a convergence for different types of sensory information. For instance, the interrelationship of visual and auditory stimuli is of special importance for language construction, and the inferior parietal lobule, most often in the left hemisphere, is therefore considered to be part of the posterior language area (see Clinical Notes)."

It should be noted that in the foregoing the angular gyrus is said to be where various types of sensory stimuli seem to converge. Another indication that the angular gyrus is the recipient of multisensory stimuli is the following description of aphasia, the disturbance in the ability to speak or understand language resulting from brain damage:

"Anomic aphasia involves difficulty in naming objects. Although this condition is present in most aphasics, a "pure" or isolated form results from damage limited to cortical areas at the junction of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobe--an area called the angular gyrus (see Figure A.7). A purely anomic patient will have normal comprehension and be able to speak almost normally in spontaneous conversation. When confronted with objects, however, or when trying to think of a word or name for something or somebody, the patient will falter badly. The difficulty is often very severe and disheartening. It has been suggested that this impairment is a result of the disruption of the multisensory associations involved in the naming act. The fact that it is associated with damage to the multimodal association of the posterior of the brain supports this contention" (Springer & Deutsch, 1981, p. 216).

The implication of the foregoing is that several types of perceptual stimuli converge at the angular gyrus, so that it normally does have awareness of signals associated with other stimuli, as well as visual, thus meeting one of the requirements of the mental system of the id.

2. The requirement that the mental system of the id produce thoughts and feelings is also met by the angular gyrus. It is probable that auditory signals produced by the angular gyrus are not limited to those resulting from conversion of visual signals to equivalent sound signals, but also include thought messages concerning perceived stimuli.

For example, since the angular gyrus is directly involved in the reading process, any sexual thoughts conjured up when reading a lustful passage in a novel are produced by the angular gyrus, for it is the angular gyrus that generates the auditory (thought) impulses associated with the words being read. Although Wernicke's area converts the auditory signals to language, it is the angular gyrus that has initiated the thoughts about what is being read.

Emotional feelings, as well, would be produced by the angular gyrus, as the reading of a lustful novel surely would stir one's feelings. Likewise, visual impulses transmitted to the angular gyrus of pornographic pictures could not help but arouse emotional feelings and produce thoughts, either positively or negatively.

Thus, the indications are that the mental system of the id that has awareness of external stimuli, and produces thought and emotional feelings impulses relating to the stimuli, is the angular gyrus of the left cerebral hemisphere.

II. Correlation of Freud's Model with the Brain's Mental Systems

It has been concluded that there are three mental systems of the human brain that independently generate thought messages; the Rational Mind, the Conscious Mind, and the Spirited (or Passionate) Mind. The three mental systems are analogous to a large extent to the superego, ego, and id systems of Freud's, respectively, and therefore are seated in the prefrontal lobe, Wernicke's area, and the angular gyrus of the left cerebral hemisphere. For our purposes here the mind is defined as: The mind is a grouping of brain cells, which have the special capability of being able to directly generates thought messages.

The human mind is customarily viewed as having the capacity to perform such mental functions as thinking, reasoning, planning, and decision-making; as possessing the property of consciousness; and as formulating emotional responses to stimuli. These functions are divided among the three mental systems of the brain mentioned above. The following discusses each of these systems.

The Rational Mind

The main distinction between the Rational Mind and the other mental systems is that the Rational Mind has the capacity to reason, whereas the others do not. The Rational Mind also differs from the Conscious Mind in that it does not experience stimuli, although it may have awareness of them. By the "experiencing" of stimuli is meant the capacity to be able to consciously feel their effects; the pain, pleasure, joy, sorrow, or physical sensations, etc. that they may cause.

The Rational Mind appears to be an observer of what is happening, rather than actually experiencing any associated emotions. For instance, in the process of becoming inebriated, one part of the person, the Rational Mind, may without passion observe what is occurring, while another part, the Conscious Mind, will actually experience the euphoria caused by the alcohol.

The type of thoughts generated by the Rational Mind are related to the intellectual planning activities required in order to satisfy the needs of a person, rather than those concerned with immediate gratification of the needs. However, it does generate thoughts related to the appropriateness of current behavioral responses to stimuli, as well.

For instance, in the foregoing example of a person becoming inebriated, the Rational Mind might generate thought signals that a person hears in his or her head as a voice cautioning, "You've had enough," to which the Conscious Mind might offer the denial, "I'm okay, I'm just getting rid of stress." Since thought messages produced by the Rational Mind are generated independently, the Rational Mind is a mental system, as defined.

Location

The Rational Mind, like the superego, is seated in the prefrontal lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere. This is deduced from the cited case of Mr. Gage, which indicates that not only is social behavior dictated by the prefrontal lobe, but also activities requiring the ability to make intellectual judgments and long-range plans. The following statement is attributed to one of the doctors who treated Gage at the time of the accident, and who continued to treat him until his death about thirteen years later:

"The equilibrium of balance, so to speak, between his intellectual faculties and animal propensities, seem to have been destroyed. He is fitful , irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his follows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans for future operation, which are no soon arranged than they are abandoned in turn for others appearing more feasible. A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations, he has the animal passions of a strong man. Previous to his injury, though untrained in the schools, he possessed a well-balanced mind, and was looked upon by those who knew him as a shrewd, smart business man, very energetic and persistent in executing all his plans of operations. In this regard his mind was radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was 'no longer Gage.'" (Valenstein, 1986, p. 90).

The foregoing indicates that destruction of the front part of Gage's brain deprived him of the intellectual capacity he once had.

Another case in point is the effect of brain damage to the prefrontal lobes, as stated by Springer and Deutsch (1981, p. 212):

" The areas in the anterior part of the frontal lobes (called prefrontal) are no longer directly tied in to motor control and are believed to serve higher integrative functions. This prefrontal area is often referred to as frontal granular cortex because of the characteristics "granular" neurons of which it is mostly composed. As shown in Figure A6, these areas are particularly enlarged in the human brain. They account for humans' distinctly high forehead when the shape of their skulls is compared with the skulls of other primates. Damage to these prefrontal areas can result in both intellectual and personality changes. Although patients still seem capable of performing many different types of tasks, deficits in executing sequences of operations or solving complex problems become evident. A patient may have trouble shifting "set" and become stuck on a task. There is an inability to inhibit the first tendency aroused by a problem. Having done one step properly, the patient may continue to use the same strategy in totally inappropriate contexts. This is often referred to as preservation. These syndromes suggest that the frontal lobes are involved in the planning and organization of actions."

In addition, the previously cited statement of Dr. Furtado (Valenstein, 1986, p. 117) states that he noticed a loss of intellectual interest, as well as a loss of moral inhibitions, in patients who had lobotomy surgery.

The foregoing citations indicate that the disruption of signals from the prefrontal region of the brain to other areas affects the intellectual functioning of an individual as well as social behavior, but does not, as noted before, affect his or her consciousness. Thus, it is concluded that there is a mental system of the brain, separate from the Conscious Mind, that generates intellectual thoughts, which may be called the Rational Mind.

Functions

As the Rational Mind is involved in intellectual pursuits, like planning and organization of actions, the following attributes are assigned to the Rational Mind, which distinguishes it from the Conscious Mind:

The Rational Mind has the capability to generate thoughts related to its capacity to reason. It has the ability to make the long range plans required to satisfy the future needs of a person, like planning the steps required to pursue a career as a lawyer, or the planning of a budget needed to pay monthly expenses. Based upon its capacity to reason and on the learning experiences of the individual, the Rational Mind plans and organizes the activities of an individual, adding structure to the life of the person.

The Rational Mind also takes into account the social acceptability and practicality of contemplated actions by the Conscious Mind, and attempts to channel the conduct of the Conscious Mind into actions that are socially appropriate. The Rational Mind is essentially equivalent to the superego, although it has the additional powers of being able to make intellectual judgments and to foresee the consequences of its actions based upon its capacity to reason and upon its learning experiences, as well as to understand concepts like, good and evil, right and wrong.

The Intellect

The functions of the Rational Mind are carried out by the "Intellect" of the individual. The Intellect may be considered to be an agent of the Rational Mind, acting on its behalf in fulfilling its responsibilities. As such, the Intellect is the voice of reason and the conscience of an individual, and is the rational thinking component of the human psyche.

The conscience of an individual is developed independently of the development of the Intellect's capabilities, and is based primarily upon the beliefs and value system of a person. So, if a person develops an asocial value system, the Intellect may use its powers adversely.

The Intellect, then, is the spokesperson for the Rational Mind in the planning and organization of the everyday itinerary and long-range goals of the person required for satisfaction of his or her needs and desires. The actions of the Intellect are premised upon the beliefs, attitudes, and learning experiences that have accumulated over the person's lifetime. Thus, the primary function of the Intellect is to plan, regulate, and guide the activities of an individual in accordance with beliefs that have been established.

The Conscious Mind

The feature that distinguishes the Conscious Mind from other systems of the brain is that it is the only system that has the capacity to have conscious awareness of stimuli, to be aware of its awareness, and to consciously experience the sensations and other effects caused by stimuli. If a person's finger is cut, the finger doesn't knew it is cut, nor does it feel the pain. It is the Conscious Mind that consciously experiences the pain and knows that the cut finger is causing it.

The Conscious Mind, being defined as a mental system, has the capacity to independently generate thoughts. The ego also has this capacity. The capability of the ego to express thoughts independently of the superego may be surmised from the previously cases cited of Mr. Gage and lobotomy patients, for all maintained the ability to talk even with their superegos disassociated, and talking is a means of communicating one's thoughts to others.

The type of thoughts formulated by the ego may be inferred from the previously cited statement, that Gage was "... yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans for future operation, which were no sooner arranged than they were abandoned in turn for others appearing more feasible." Apparently, the ego has the capacity for producing thoughts, but its thoughts are limited to immediate responses to stimuli rather than long range planning.

As both the Conscious Mind and the ego have consciousness of stimuli and generate thoughts, the Conscious Mind is equivalent to the ego if the other stated attributes of the ego are assigned to the Conscious Mind. Thus, by definition: The Conscious Mind is the mental system that has the capacity to have conscious awareness of sensory perceptions and sensations, and to experience their effects, and to be able to discriminate one stimuli from another, to extract information from memory, to utilize the language and motor mechanism, and to formulate thoughts and make decisions related to immediate actions to be taken in its endeavors to satisfy unfulfilled needs.

The capacity to have conscious awareness of stimuli means the Conscious Mind has the ability to transform sensory perception signals into the visions and sounds a person sees and hears. The capacity to experience the effects of stimuli means that the Conscious Mind has consciousness of the physical sensations and emotional feelings caused by the stimuli.

It should be pointed out that although the Conscious Mind receives impulses which permits it to form a visual and auditory representation of a perceived stimulus, neither the Conscious Mind, nor any other system of the brain, actually sees or hears anything. Light rays impinge only upon the eyes, and sound waves, upon the ears. Thereafter, it is only electric impulses that are conveyed to the Conscious Mind and other brain systems. The Conscious Mind, somehow, is able to reproduce visions, sounds, and other attributes of external stimuli from these impulses; and in a manner that it sees and hears the stimuli in their proper locations in the external environment, rather than in the head where their associated impulses are generated.

The conversion of impulses to visual and sound aspects of things never seen nor heard by the Conscious Mind may seem to be somewhat of a miracle, but, to an extent, this phenomenon is an everyday occurrence; in the reproduction of video and sound by a television receiver.

The TV set never sees the objects nor hears the sounds picked up by the television camera, which are converted to electromagnetic waves and transmitted thousands of miles. Yet, the TV set is able to reproduce the scene although never having seen it. Of course, the difference is that the TV does not know the significance of what it has reproduced, whereas the Conscious Mind does.

It should be also pointed out that although the Conscious Mind experiences emotions, it does not generate the feelings that cause the emotions. According to the psychologist William James, emotions are the physical bodily changes experienced because of the way a person feels about something that he or she has perceived. Thus, an emotion is the physical expression of the feelings a person has about something, not the feeling itself.

A person may emotionally express the feeling of happiness by the physical act of smiling or laughing, and the feeling of sadness, by crying. However, unless a person actually responds physically in such manner to the feeling of happiness or sadness, the person has not actually experienced the emotion associated with the feeling. If a person is in a state of grief, unless the person cries or otherwise expresses the grief, he or she has not emotionally experienced the grief, and the grief impulses remain with the person.

Unlike other facets of the functioning of the brain, emotional feelings are "all in the mind;" that is, they are caused subjectively by the way a person feels about what has occurred, rather than being an actual property of the occurrence. For instance, if one were in a jungle and saw a tiger charging at him or her, the emotional response of fear would be much greater than if the person saw the same thing on television. Fear is not a property of the tiger, but is a result of the person's interpretation of the tiger as being a threat. Therefore, a person's emotional response is determined primarily by how the person interprets something rather than by the thing itself.

The physical basis of emotions experienced by the Conscious Mind are known to be the chemicals and signals generated by certain structures of the brain called the "limbic systems." When a situation is discerned as having an emotional content, the chemicals and impulses produced by the limbic system cause physical responses that are experienced by the Conscious Mind as the emotion associated with the event. For example, if a person is angry, the heartbeat and respiration rate increase, and certain hormones are secreted and impulses generated that cause the Conscious Mind to experience the sensations resulting from the anger.

Although the Conscious Mind experiences the emotion caused by the anger, it is not itself angry; it is the Spirited Mind that has become angry, perhaps by an insensitive remark. The Conscious Mind only experiences emotions, it does not initiate them, just as it does not initiate the physical sensation of hunger, but only experiences it. Rather, it is the Spirited Mind that produces the feelings that result in emotions.

Location

Since by definition the Conscious Mind is the ego, it is seated in the same region of the brain as the ego, namely, Wernicke's area.

Function

The goal of the Conscious Mind is to satisfy the needs of the person, taking into account the realities of the world and social ethics, and through utilization of its inherent powers, as stated. Its main function is that of decision-maker, determining the immediate responses to be made to perceived and internal stimuli in order to alleviate the agitation they cause.

The Conscious Mind does not have the capacity to reason or to form intellectual judgments, as indicated by the cases cited of Mr. Gage and of patients suffering from brain damage or disease, as well as the disastrous results of lobotomy on patients.

The Spirited Mind

The Spirited Mind is a mental system, which not only formulates thoughts concerning perceived stimuli, but generates feelings impulses with respect to stimuli, as well. The Spirited Mind is equivalent to the mental system used to satisfy the nonphysical instinctual needs of the id. The feelings impulses are not themselves experienced by the Spirited Mind, nor by the Conscious Mind; rather, as just discussed, the emotion associated with the feeling impulses is what is consciously experienced, and only by the Conscious Mind.

Other systems as well as the Spirited Mind may generate feelings that cause emotional responses to be experienced by the Conscious Mind. For example, visual stimuli having an emotional content of a scary nature was directed to the right hemisphere of a female split-brain patient. She reported that she felt scared, but was unable to say why even though she was consciously aware that she was scared (Gazzangia, 1985, pp. 76-77).

Apparently, a person can generate emotional responses to stimuli even if not consciously aware of the stimuli. However, the systems producing such responses are not mental systems as they do not generate thoughts.

Location

Since the Spirited Mind is equivalent to the mental system of the id, it is seated in the angular gyrus of the left cerebral hemisphere.

Function

The Spirited Mind is the mental system that generates thought and feeling impulses related to the nonphysical instinctual needs of the id, and cause a person to experience such emotions as joy, happiness, love, affection, sadness, and emotional pain. Since it is involved in producing such emotions, the Spirited Mind might also be called the "Passionate Mind," since it initiates the passions a person feels. It is extremely sensitive to criticism that reflects upon its sense of self-worth, or self-esteem, which will cause it to have "hurt feelings."

Remarks

The operations of all of the systems of the brain, both physical and mental, are so ordered that they act as a single system. It is through the coordinated operations of the systems of the brain that an individual becomes consciously aware of what is occurring internally and externally, what he or she thinks and feels about it, and makes the necessary decisions required to fulfill his or her needs. Although the brain's systems operate as a single unit, it is important to the understanding of human behavior to recognize that there are independent mental systems at work in responding to stimuli, each with its particular functions to perform. It helps to explain why a person knows and wants to do the correct thing, but often fails; and why strong needs and desires that agitate the id may overshadow the person's power of reason.

Accordingly, it is hoped that this paper might open new ways of looking at the systems underlying human behavior, inspiring further research in that direction, as well as providing insight to the reader as to the mental systems influencing his or her actions.

References

Freud, S. (1986). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed. and trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

Gazzaniga, M. S. (1985). The social brain: Discovering the networks of the mind. New York: Basic Books.

Goble, F. G. (1993). Maslow, Abraham H. In Collier's encyclopedia (Vol. 15, p. 498). New York: Collier.

Hall, C. S. (1954). A primer of Freudian psychology. New York: World Publishing Co.

Heimer, L. (1983). The human brain and spinal cord. (pp. 71, 346). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Hooper, J., & Teresi, D. (1986). The 3-pound universe. New York: Macmillan.

James, Wm. (1992). William James Writings 1878-1899 (pp. 350-365). New York: Library Classics of the United States, Inc.

Posey, C. A. (Ed.). (1990). Mysteries of the human body (pp. 32-33). Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books.

Restak, R. (1993). Brain. In The World Book encyclopedia (Vol. 2, pp. 561-570). Chicago: World Book.

Springer, S.P., & Deutsch, G. (1981). Left brain, right brain. San Francisco: Freeman.

Valenstein, E. S. (1986). Great and desperate cures: The rise and decline of psychosurgery and other radical treatment for mental illness. New York: Basic Books.

the reader as to the mental systems influencing his or her actions. (From "The Human Psyche and the Nature of Man")

Author's Profile

Herbert R. Rinder

B.S.E.E. University of Illinois, 1950.

U.S. Army, Ordinance, 1950-52.

Employed 24 years, FPC/USDOE.

In-charge, Div. PS&R, Chicago Office.

Retired, 1982.

Researcher-Writer, 14 years.

Books authored:

• The New Testament, Fact or Fiction?

• The Human Psyche and The Nature Of Man

• Joy To The World

• The Quest For Truth and Fulfillment

November 3, 1996
Email address: rhrrr@aol.com