Universal Energy

Copyright © 2000 by Herbert R. Rinder *
All rights reserved.
E-mail Address: rhrrr@aol.com

* Listed in Year 2000 Marquis Who’s Who in the World

July 2000

Preface

This paper presents a discussion of the proposition that there is but one, single physical Universal Energy in all the universe. But what is energy and what does it do? This question can only be partially answered. We know what energy does, but what energy actually is, is beyond comprehension. How can something, such as the energy of earth’s gravity, which is intangible, apparently without material substance, and which cannot be perceived directly but only through its effects, yet be able to move objects of enormous weight, pulling them toward the center of the earth? The paper presents conclusions pertaining to the singleness of energy based upon the effects of energy that are generally observable.

The length of the paper is about 33 pages. It may be downloaded (saved) to your system or printed in the usual manner, using the "Save As" and "Print" functions of the File menu. The graphics may have to be downloaded separately. They are listed at the end of the Appendix, with instructions given there which should be compatible with most browsers.

OTHER PAPERS BY THE AUTHOR (Click below to view document)

SCIENTIFIC CREATION
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/creation.htm

Presents the story of Creation From a Scientific Perspective, and concludes
that there is a single Universal Life Force.

EINSTEIN'S MISTAKE?
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/einstein.htm

Einstein's relativity theories are presented in a simple, non-mathematical format, and a discussion is presented as to why he may have been mistaken in his belief that space and time are relative, rather than absolute.

NATURE OF GRAVITY
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/natgrav.htm

The paper presents in a simple, easy to understand, format evidence indicating that the earth's magnetic field and gravity are identical.

THE HUMAN MIND
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/humanmnd.htm

The location in the brain of Freud’s mental systems, the id, the ego, and the superego, are determined, and their relationship to the mental systems of the human mind are discussed.

THE HUMAN PSYCHE AND THE NATURE OF MAN http://members.aol.com/rhrrr2/humanpsy.htm

Discusses in easy-to-understand language the functioning of the major elements of the human psyche, and the factors influencing human behavior.

THE NEW TESTAMENT COMPOSITE GOSPEL http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/compgosp.htm

To simplify the understanding of what was really preached by Jesus, the four gospels of the New Testament are combined into a single gospel without altering any of the original text.

SUMMARY NEW TESTAMENT BOOKS
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/nwtstbks.htm

Summarizes the salient points of the New Testament books of Acts, Letters, and Revelation.

SYNOPSIS OF PHILOSOPHIC THOUGHT THROUGHOUT THE AGES
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/philthgt.htm

Major Eastern and Western philosophic thought over 2500 years of history is presented.

FREEDOM OF RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION DECLARATION http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/relgfrd.htm

Presents a draft declaration directed toward promoting religious harmony.

LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS FOR SOCIAL REFORMS http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/soclrefm.htm

Presents proposals for legislation to promote social justice for all Americans.

EDUCATION REFORM
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/edreform.htm

Presents an innovative approach for improving the quality of education.

COLLECTION OF WORKS
http://members.aol.com/rhrrr/listwrks.htm

Lists the works of the author, some of which may not be included in the above list.

Contents

INTRODUCTION

ENERGY MANIFESTATIONS

      NUCLEAR ENERGY

      MECHANICAL ENERGY

      CHEMICAL ENERGY

      THERMAL ENERGY

      ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

      GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY

      UNIVERSAL ENERGY

APPENDIX

INTRODUCTION

Although we do not know exactly what energy is, through observations of the effects of energy, laws pertaining to its functioning have been developed. In the physical science field  of mechanics, the study of the motion of bodies and the action of forces on them, energy has been defined in terms of what it does. Energy usually is defined as that which has “the capacity to perform work.” Work is the product of a force F applied to a body and the displacement d of the body in the direction of the applied force, so that W =F X d.

If a force is applied to a body but no displacement occurs, no work has been done on it. Therefore, if a person exert much force against a heavy object but cannot budge it, no work has been done on the object. The energy expended in trying to move the object may be dissipated by the person as thermal energy resulting from bodily biological changes. Thus, the function of energy is to produce work through application of a force on a body.

A force is that which can produce an acceleration, a, of a material body of mass, m. Force is equal to the product of the mass of the body and the acceleration of the mass due to the force applied to the mass (F=ma). Essentially, the relationship between force and energy is: Force is the means by which energy is transferred to a body from the source of the energy, whereupon the energy does the work on the body.

In the scientific fields other than mechanics, like chemistry and nuclear, which are concern with infinitely small particles, the same principles relating to energy, work, and force are applicable, but sometimes require modification to accurately describe the interactions of high velocity particles.

It is commonly accepted that the quantity of energy in the universe is constant, and that energy can not be created nor destroyed, but may be transformed from one form to another. However, energy is not actually “transformed,” in the sense that it is changed from one form into another. Rather, a single energy exists that may be manifested in various forms. The major forms of energy manifestations can be categorized as nuclear, mechanical, chemical, thermal, electromagnetic, and gravitation.

ENERGY MANIFESTATIONS

NUCLEAR ENERGY

The building block of all material substances is the atom, which itself contains more elementary particles. Thus, to understand how the various energy forms interact with material particles and substances requires a knowledge of the structure of atoms. Accordingly, we shall begin with a discussion of nuclear energy, which is the internal energy that is inherent in all atoms.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES WITHIN AN ATOM

The elementary particles of which atoms are constructed are primarily the electron, the proton, and the neutron, although other nuclear particles are thought to also exist. The basic structure of an atom is that of a nucleus around which various numbers of electrons continuously orbit. Within the nucleus of the atom is contained a number of protons and neutrons. The mass of a neutron is approximately equal to that of a proton, but the mass of a proton is almost 2000 times the mass of an electron. Since protons and neutrons are contained in the nucleus of an atom, the mass of an atom is contained almost entirely in its nucleus.

Protons are known to have a positive electric charge associated with them, while electrons have a negative electric charge, and neutrons are neutral; that is, they do not have an electric charge. In the ideal state, the number of electrons revolving around the nucleus of an atom is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus, so that the atom is electrically neutral.When there are less electrons associated with an atom than there are protons, this leaves a vacancy in the atom that can be filled by the sharing or the exchange of electrons with other atoms, which results in the formation of combination of atoms into molecules and chemical compounds that have different properties than the individual atoms.

An electric charge does not exist by itself, but only in conjunction with a particle of mass, such as an electron or proton. A charge is not something that is superimposed upon an electron or proton, but is an innate property of theirs. By the term charge is meant that a negative particle, like an electron, has the property of attracting to it a particle that has a positive charge, and that a positive particle has the property of attracting to it a negatively charged particle. Negative particles inherently repel other negative particles, so that electrons in close proximity of each other will repel one another. Positive particles behave likewise, in that protons in close proximity tend inherently to repel each other. The designation of a particle as having a positive or negative charge is purely an arbitrary convention, used only to distinguish the fact that it is electrically similar or dissimilar to another particle.

Another property of electrons, protons and neutrons, in addition to their charge, is that they each have spin. By spin is meant that a particle revolves around its axis, similar to the way the earth revolves about its axis as it orbits the sun. The electron, in particular, is said to behave like a bar magnet, inasmuch as a polarized magnetic field is produced around it as it spins and orbits the nucleus of the atom. However, protons, neutrons, and all matter, also exhibit some magnetic properties. Thus, electrons, protons, neutrons, and all material substances may be affected by magnetic fields.

ATOMIC INTERACTIONS (FORCES)

The interactions of the various nuclear particles within an atom are controlled by nuclear forces. There are essentially four known forces, or as they are called, interactions, that are inherent in the internal structure of an atom, which are believed to control the physical phenomena and interactions within atoms: the strong nuclear interaction; the weak nuclear interaction; the electromagnetic interaction; and the gravitational interaction.

Strong Nuclear Interaction

The strong nuclear interaction is that which binds together the nucleons, or particles, of the nucleus of an atom. How tightly the nucleons are held together by the strong nuclear interaction is measured by the binding energy of the nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of an atom is the energy required to remove one neutron or proton from the nucleus. When the nucleus of an atom is split, as when nuclear fission occurs, or when the nuclei of two atoms are combined, as when fusion occurs, a huge amount of energy is released, mostly in the form of light and heat.

The energy that is released as light and heat is derived from the binding energy that holds together the nuclei of atoms before they are split or fused. Accordingly, the binding energy is probably of the same form as the light and heat energy released. Light is known to be an electromagnetic phenomenon, and the heat that is released is in the form of radiated thermal energy, which is also electromagnetic in nature, as will be discussed later. Thus, the binding energy, the energy associated with the strong interaction, probably is electromagnetic energy, and the strong interaction, an electromagnetic occurrence.

Electromagnetic Interaction

The electromagnetic interaction is what binds the orbiting electrons to the nuclei of atoms. The binding is a result of the negative charge of the electrons that cause them to be attracted to the positively charged protons in the nucleus of the atom. The electromagnetic force is of considerably less strength than the strong interaction, but much greater than the weak interaction. As the interaction force is electromagnetic, the energy associated with the interaction also must be electromagnetic in nature.

Weak Nuclear Interaction

The weak nuclear interaction is of extremely less strength than both the strong and electromagnetic interactions. It is responsible for the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei, which results in radioactive radiation consisting of essentially three types of emissions; alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays. Alpha rays are streams of positively charged helium nuclei; beta rays are high velocity electrons; and gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelengths.

Radioactive emissions are limited to elements that are radioactive, such as radium and polonium. The emission of alpha or beta rays results in the transmutation of the emitting element into a different one. For instance, an atom of the element U²³⁸, upon emitting an alpha particle, becomes an atom of another element, U²³⁴.

In 1979 three physicists received the Nobel prize in physics for their work on a model that successfully unified the weak interaction with the electromagnetic interaction. Thus, energy associated with the weak interaction is of the same form as the energy associated with the electromagnetic interaction.

Gravitational Interaction

The gravitational interaction of an atom is the weakest of all, and has only a tiny fraction the strength of the weak interaction.

It is believed that each of the above interactions function through the exchange of a particular kind of boson, which is related to the spin, or angular momentum, of a specific particle associated with the interaction. The strong interactions, supposedly, result from the exchange of what are called gluons (probably because they “glue,” or hold together, the nucleus); weak interactions, result from the exchange of weak bosons; electromagnetic interactions, from the exchange of photons; and gravitational interactions, from the exchange of gravitons. The gluons, weak bosons, photons, and gravitons are all considered to be boson particles having special attributes.

Although the four types of interactions have been considered as being different from one another, the weak and electromagnetic interactions have been successfully unified, as stated in the foregoing; and subsequent efforts are believed to have been successful in also uniting the strong interaction with the other two. Thus, three of the four interactions, and the energy associated with each, can be considered to be electromagnetic phenomena. The fourth, the gravitational interaction, so far has not been able to be identified as such, but the discussions presented later on gravitational and universal energies may shed new light on this.

In discussing nuclear energy, we were concerned with energy at the atomic level. Now we shall explore energy as utilize in larger bodies that are comprised of collections of atoms that function together as a unit.

MECHANICAL ENERGY

The field of mechanics pertains to the motions of bodies and particles, and the phenomena involved in their motions. The whole universe is in continuous motion. The earth rotates on its axis at nearly a 1,000 miles per hour, and orbits around the sun at about 66,000 miles per hour. Likewise, all planets in our solar system continuously orbit the sun, and the other celestial bodies and stars are also in motion relative to each other. On a microscopic scale, electrons continuously orbit the nuclei of atoms, and they, and other particles of the atoms spin on their axes, similar to the earth. Thus, understanding the phenomena influencing the motion of bodies and particles is important. The material presented here deals only with energy phenomena relating to such motion. Energy that can result in the motion of material substances is usually designated as mechanical energy. There are two types of mechanical energy, potential energy and kinetic energy.

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Mechanical potential energy is energy that a body possess by virtue of its physical position. If the relative position of a stationary body is changed, its potential energy is changed. For instance, if a 1 pound object is lifted 5 feet from the floor to the top of a table upon which it is placed, 5 foot-pounds of energy have been used in lifting the object. The potential energy of the object is then said to be 5 foot-pounds (relative to what is had been) because of its new position. If the object were to fall off the table, its potential energy when it reached floor-level would be reduced by 5 foot-pounds, to that which it was before.

One way of explaining this is to say that the object acquired 5 foot-pounds of energy when lifted and released that energy when it fell, so that the energy content of the object at floor level was the same as it had been initially. However, I do not believe that is the case, that the object acquired energy when it was lifted and gave it up when it fell. Rather, it had more potential energy when on the tabletop than when on the floor because of its new position in the gravity field.

The 5 foot-pounds of energy used to lift the object was dissipated in overcoming the effect of gravity on the object; it was not transferred to the object. Since it took 5 foot-pounds of energy to overcome gravity in lifting the object, when falling the effect of gravity on the object is the same, or 5 foot-pounds. The energy content of the object remains constant regardless of its elevation; its potential energy change is due only to the change in the distance through which gravity can affect it.

KINETIC ENERGY

Whereas the mechanical potential energy of a body is a result of its position, kinetic energy of a body is a result of its motion. Mathematically, the kinetic energy KE of a body equals 1/2 its mass m multiplied by the square of its velocity v (KE = 1/2 mv²). Thus, the faster a substance of mass is moving the more kinetic energy it possesses; therefore, the more work it can do.

The total mechanical energy of a body is constant, and is equal to the sum of its potential and kinetic energies. This is consistent with the law of the conservation of energy; that says energy cannot be destroyed nor created, but only manifested in a different form. For instance, if a ball is thrown vertically into the air, the ball has an initial kinetic energy proportional to the force used in propelling it. As it proceeds upwards up its potential energy increases because of its higher elevation, but its kinetic energy decreases from a maximum when it starts it upward trek to zero at its peak, due to the effect of gravity on its velocity. In falling back to earth the reverse is true, the potential energy decreases to what it had been and the kinetic energy increases to what it was when the ball was initially thrown. The sum of the kinetic and potential energies at any point of the trajectory remains constant.

It should be noted that the mechanical energy used to throw the ball into the air came from a source outside the ball, as did the energy that caused the ball to return to earth. Therefore, mechanical energy is not an independent source of energy, but dependent upon some other source of energy in order to produce useful work, the ultimate function of energy. Thus, mechanical potential energy is dependent upon gravity in order to do work, and kinetic energy is dependent upon an outside source of energy to supply the energy needed to set a body in motion, be it the arm of a person throwing a ball, or the chemical energy stored in gasoline that provides the kinetic energy needed to set a car in motion.

CHEMICAL ENERGY

Whereas mechanical energy influences the motion of bodies of relatively large masses, the functioning of chemical energy is more related to the reactions of particles at the atomic and molecular level. Molecules are groups of atoms that function together as a single unit. For instance, the chemical formula for water is H₂O, which is interpreted to mean that two atoms of hydrogen are chemically bound together with one atom of oxygen to form one molecule of water. A single molecule of a substance consists of the minimum number of atoms of each of its elements that are required to be bound together in order for the substance to have certain properties. The two atoms of hydrogen when combined with an oxygen atom is what gives water the properties it exhibits.

Molecules of one substance may combine, or react, chemically with molecules of a different substance to form a chemical compound with properties which differ from those of either substance. For instance, molecules of sodium may combine with molecules of chlorine to form the compound sodium chloride, or salt, having a distinctive taste that differs from that of either element. Although the properties of a compound formed by a chemical reaction may vary from that of the individual elements, the basic constitutions of each element is conserved. The total number and kinds of atoms present before the reaction is the same afterwards, as are their total mass and electrical charges.

CHEMICAL BONDING

Chemical bonds, or forces, that hold atoms together in a molecule may be covalent or ionic. Covalent bonds hold atoms together by the sharing of the electrons orbiting the nuclei of the atoms. Ionic bonds hold atoms together by the attraction of oppositely charged ions.

Covalent Bonding

All substances are made up of combinations of atoms of chemical elements, which are bonded together. The bonding of two or more atoms occurs when they are brought close, because an attractive force exists not only between the electrons and nucleus of an individual atom, but between the electrons of the atom and the nuclei of other atoms, as well. If this force is large enough, a chemical bond forms between the electrons and nuclei of the atoms, which holds the atoms together. In many atoms, most of the electrons are so firmly attracted to their own nucleus that they can have no appreciable interaction with other nuclei. Only those electrons at the outer region of an atom can interact with the nuclei of other atoms. These are called valence electrons. The bonding of atoms by the sharing of valence electrons is known as covalent bonding, and results in the formation of the molecules of a substance.

When covalent bonding takes place between the atoms of a metallic element, like copper, with another metallic element, some of the shared electrons are able to move freely when a force is applied. The free electrons of the elements, under the influence of a force, may act as a conductor of electricity. Metallic substances generally are good conductors of electric and thermal energies.

Ionic Bonding

In addition to covalent bonding, ionic bonding may occur. An atom that has an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral. If an atom or molecule loses or gains one or more electrons it is said to be electrically charged. Electrically charged molecules are called ions, and the bonding together of ions is called ionic bonding. Ionic bonding occurs between molecules when some of the electrons of one molecule become attached to another molecule, so that it becomes a negatively charged ion. The molecule supplying the electrons becomes positively charged because of the loss of electrons. As oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, ionic bonds are formed between the electrically charged ions.

The chemical reactions that takes place in covalent and ionic bonding require the use of energy. The required chemical energy is furnished by the electric forces that cause the bonding. Thus, the energy utilized in chemical reactions is actually electric energy. Both potential energy and kinetic energy are involved in a chemical reaction. The potential energy is stored in the individual elements of a substance in accordance with their atomic structure (number of electrons, protons, etc.), which as a result of the chemical reaction becomes kinetic energy. For instance, the use of coal to generate electricity requires combustion of the coal. During the process, atoms of hydrogen and carbon in the coal combine with oxygen atoms in the air, and produce water, carbon dioxide and heat.

Thus, the potential energy stored in the coal, because of the chemical composition and electronic structure of its atoms, is changed through the chemical reaction of combustion to a different electronic configuration arrangement, producing new products, like carbon dioxide, etc. The atomic rearrangement of the initial constitutions of the coal to the end products required kinetic energy, which was supplied by the potential energy of the coal. The heat energy released furnishes the kinetic energy needed to transform water into steam, which is used to drive the steam-electric generator.

As in mechanics, energy must be conserved in chemical reactions, which is accomplished through the exchange of heat. A chemical reaction either releases heat or absorbs heat, depending upon various conditions that exists, so that the total energies of the elements involved in a reaction remain constant.

BIOCHEMICAL ENERGY

The preceding primarily concerned energy utilized in the chemical processes of inorganic elements, but the cells of living organisms also use energy in the various functions they perform. The field of biochemistry studies the processes by which the cells of living plants and animals store, transform, and release energy. Through biochemical processes plant cells use sunlight to make carbohydrates (sugars and starches). In this process, called photosynthesis, radiant energy from the sun is converted into stored chemical potential energy. When plants are eaten by an animal, the carbohydrates of the plants are broken down and stored as potential energy, which is turned into kinetic energy as required by the animal for movement, body heat, and other functions.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms that contain chlorophyll such as, green plants, algae, and some bacteria, transform light energy into chemical energy. Virtually all energy that support life is made accessible through the process of photosynthesis. The basic ingredients required are light energy, carbon dioxide, and electrons supplied by chemical compounds that can be oxidized. The end result is the production of hydrocarbons that nourish the organism.

The first step in photosynthesis is the absorption of light energy in the violet and red portions of the electromagnetic spectrum by the chlorophyll and other pigments of the cells of the plant, which transform the light energy into stored chemical energy through a series of reactions. The absorption of light by the pigments increases the energy levels of the electrons of the pigments.. The energized electrons are employed in various chemical reactions, which produce a substance called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and the enzyme NADPH₂ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). The chemical energy produced in the process is stored in the ATP and NADPH₂, and is used to change carbon dioxide into a carbon based sugar called glucose through a series of reactions known as the Calvin cycle.

Thus, the photosynthesis process temporary stores light energy in ATP and NADPH₂ as chemical energy, which is permanently changed into the sugar (glucose) that is used as nourishment for the plant. The first part of the process requires water that is ionized though chemical reactions to provides electrons, which are utilized in the transference of the light energy to form ATP and NADPH₂. In the end process, carbon dioxide is reduced to provide the carbon basis for the sugar molecules.

In accordance with the foregoing, the primary energy used in photosynthesis is the electromagnetic energy radiated by the sun, which is stored as potential energy in the cells of the plant. The potential energy becomes kinetic energy when chemical reactions take place that utilize the potential energy in the nourishment and growth of the plant. The plant itself  becomes a source of potential energy in the human and animal food chain, and is the source of the kinetic energy required for human and animal activities. Thus, the source of the chemical energy used in both organic and inorganic chemical reactions is electromagnetic energy, which may be in the form of light or heat.

THERMAL ENERGY

Thermal energy, or heat, is known to be a form of energy. It can be converted into mechanical work, and it can be stored, but is not a material substance. Just as other energy forms have the capacity to perform work, so does heat. Although the calorie is commonly used as the unit of measurement of heat content, the calorie is directly convertible into ergs or joules, which are the standard units used in the measurement of energy and work. Accordingly, the law of energy conservation applies also to heat as well as to other energy forms. The amount of heat transferred into a system must equal the amount of work done on the system plus the corresponding increase of internal energy in the system. There are three processes by which thermal energy may be transferred from one material body or substance to another: by conduction; by convection; or by radiation.

TRANSMISSION OF THERMAL ENERGY

Conduction

Conduction is generally the method of heat transfer in opaque (nontransparent) solids. Certain materials, such as metals, generally have high thermal conductivity and conduct heat readily. For instance, if a metal rod is heated at one end, the heat will be rapidly conducted to the colder end. The process of conduction is caused by the increased excitement of the molecules due to the absorption of thermal energy by the conductor. The absorbed heat energy increases the collisions and friction of the molecules, causing them to heat up and pass along the thermal agitation from one molecule to another until the molecules all reach the same average degree of disturbance (temperature).

Convection

Convection is the process by which heat may be transferred between a solid and a liquid or gas fluid. Convection transfers heat energy between a solid and a fluid through the interactions of the molecules of the two substances, which are of different temperatures. Natural convection is due to the fact that in a gravitational field a hotter, lighter fluid will rise, while a colder, heavier fluid will sink. The temperature of a fluid will increase and its density will decrease when making contact with a solid at a higher temperature. Because of gravity the lighter fluid will rise, to be replaced with the cooler fluid, and the convection process will repeat itself. The process of forced convection also can be produced, by applying a pressure that will force the movement of the fluid. Convection currents play a major part in the movement of large air masses in the earth’s atmosphere, and in the actions of the winds, rainfall, and ocean currents, as well as in the transfer of heat from the interior of the sun to its surface.

Radiation

Radiation is the process of transferring thermal energy via electromagnetic waves, such as the infrared rays of the sun. The transfer of heat from one substance to another by radiation, unlike conduction and convection, can take place at a distance; that is, even if the substances are not in direct contact with each other. The process of radiation is not limited to the transfer of thermal energy, but is applicable to the transmission of all electromagnetic energy within the electromagnetic spectrum.

The intensity, or strength, of the radiant thermal energy emitted by a body is related to the temperature of the body and to the wavelength of the energy radiated. All bodies or substances are capable of radiating thermal energy, since all bodies above absolute zero have a temperature and therefore contain heat. The higher the relative temperature, the greater the amount of energy that can be emitted. All substances, in addition to being able to emit energy as radiation, are capable of absorbing radiation. The ability of a substance to absorb, reflect, and transmit radiation that impinges upon it depends upon the wavelength of the radiation. Glass, for example, can transmit through it large amounts of ultraviolet radiation (short wavelength), but is a poor transmitter of infrared radiation (long wavelength).

The wavelength of the radiant energy emitted by a body becomes shorter as the temperature of the body increases; that is, the higher the temperature of the emitting body, the shorter the wavelength of the radiation. Most of the heat energy radiated by the sun, therefore, is characterized by short wavelengths, as the sun is extremely hot. The product of the temperature of a body and the wavelength of its radiation is a constant. Also, the product of the frequency of oscillation of an electromagnetic wave and its wavelength is a constant. Therefore, there is a relationship between the temperature of a body and the frequency and wavelength of the radiation emitted by the body. This holds true for all electromagnetic radiations as well as thermal.

POTENTIAL AND KINETIC THERMAL ENERGY

Thermal Potential Energy

Thermal potential energy is inherent in a material substance due to the motions of the molecules of the substance. The molecules of any substance when in a state of rest, or equilibrium, attain an average velocity that is consistent with the physical constraints of its environment; temperature, volume, pressure, etc. If a colder substance is brought in contact with it, the potential energy of the hotter substance is changed to kinetic energy, causing an increase in the motions of the molecules of the colder substance.

Thermal Kinetic Energy

As stated previously, the thermal energy absorbed by the heated end of a metal rod is transferred to the colder end by means of conduction. The absorbed heat disturbs the balance of the forces holding together the molecules, resulting in the unsettling of the molecules from their rest state, and increasing the number of their collisions and the friction between them.

The molecular agitation due to the absorption of the thermal energy is passed along from one molecule to another, until the molecules all reach the same average degree of agitation, or temperature. Just as water always seeks its own level, the molecules of a substance, or of a system, will exchange heat energy with each other until equilibrium is reached; that is, until the molecules are all at the same average temperature. Generally, when a hot substance is brought into contact with a relatively colder substance, the flow of heat is from the higher temperature substance to the one at the lower temperature.

The temperature of a substance or a system is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance or system. Increasing the temperature of a substance increases the motion of its molecules, and therefore also increases their kinetic energy. When heat energy is emitted or extracted from a substance, the temperature of the substance is reduced, and the vigor of its molecular motion is decreased. Mechanisms have been developed for extracting heat from substances that can lower their temperature close to absolute zero. Although absolute zero can be approached closely, it can never be reached; that is, it is not possible to completely devoid a substance of heat. Thus, the molecules of a substance is always in a state of motion, which increases as their temperature increases.

It should be noted that although friction produces heat, the heat is the result of the increased agitation of the molecules of the substance, which is caused by the friction. It also should be noted that thermal conduction and convection are not forms of thermal energy, but are merely processes by which thermal energy can be transferred from one point to another.

The molecular agitation involved in these processes require an outside source of energy, such as a chemical reaction or electromagnetic radiation, to change the kinetic energy of the molecules. As the source of chemical energy is electromagnetic energy, and thermal radiation is electromagnetic energy, it may be concluded that thermal energy is a form of electromagnetic energy.

Since the energies discussed so far are either electromagnetic or gravitational phenomena, it is now fitting to consider these, starting with electromagnetic energy.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

ELECTRICITY

Everyday electricity is the result of the flow of electrons. As discussed previously, electrons have a negative electric charge associated with them; attract positively charged particles; have spin; and behave like a bar magnet. The flow of electrons through a conductor, like a copper wire, that is connected to the terminals of an electric source such as a battery, constitutes an electric current; and the system, consisting of the conductor and source, constitutes an electric circuit. A current flowing in a circuit in one direction only, as when its source is a battery, is called direct current (DC), and is called an alternating current (AC) if it flows alternately back and forth in the conductor, as is the usual case for electricity supplied to homes.

For electrons to flow in a circuit requires that work be done to move them from one point to another; that is, energy must be supplied to the system. The energy is furnished through application of a force (called the electromotive force, or emf), which polarizes the ends of the circuit so that a potential difference is established between its terminals.

If the source of the force is a battery that has an emf of 9 volts, the battery has chemically stored in it potential energy that causes a 9 volt potential difference to exist between the terminals of the battery. When the battery is connected to the circuit, the battery’s emf sets up a 9 volt potential difference between the ends of the circuit, causing the electrons to flow through the circuit. The kinetic energy needed to do the work required for the electrons to flow is supplied by the potential energy of the battery.

Another means of producing electricity, in addition to the battery, is an electric generator. An electric generator may by powered either by water or by the combustion of fuels like, coal, oil, or gas. A hydroelectric (water powered) generator utilizes the water’s potential energy that it possesses because of gravity, which becomes kinetic energy as the water flows to a lower elevation and revolves the turbine of the hydroelectric generator.

In the combustion of fuels to generate electric energy, energy stored in the fuels exists in the form of chemical potential energy, which is released when the fuels are ignited, primarily as thermal energy (heat). The thermal energy is used to convert water to steam, the kinetic energy of which is used to drive steam-electric generators, which in turn impart kinetic energy to electrons causing them to flow as an electric current. The electricity produced by hydro and steam generators, and by batteries, as well, is utilized in driving a multitude of mechanical, electric, electronic, and thermal devices that use electricity to power them. It should be noted that the original sources of the energy producing the electricity are gravity and chemical energy, the source of which is actually electromagnetic energy, as discussed previously.

When an electric current flows through a conductor two important effects can be observed; the temperature of the conductor increases, and a compass needle when placed near the conductor will be deflected. The increase in temperature is caused by the electrons colliding with the molecules of the conductor as they flow through it, which causes the release of energy in the form of heat. The deflection of the compass needle is caused by the fact that a compass needle is actually a small magnet and the movement of the electrically charged electrons produces a magnetic field around the conductor that can act on objects. Thus, electrons that flow in a circuit produce both electricity and magnetic effects. Charged particles that are stationary relative to their surroundings produce what is called static electricity. An electric field, but not a magnetic field, is created around a stationary (at rest) charged particle. (A discussion of electric and magnetic fields is presented later.)

MAGNETISM

It is stated above that electrons flowing in a circuit produce both electricity and magnetic effects, but electrically charged particles that are stationary produce only electric fields, not magnetic fields. Thus, magnetism is an electric phenomenon related primarily to the flow of electrons. A substance becomes magnetized when a force is applied that aligns its free electrons in a manner that their magnetic fields reinforce each other. Some materials lose their magnetism after removal of the force, so are known as temporary magnets. Other substances will retain their magnetism even after the source is removed, and these then become permanent magnets.

A magnetized substance, such as a bar magnet, is said to be polarized; that is, one end is designated as a north-seeking pole and the other end as a south-seeking pole, depending upon the geographic direction to which the pole would be orientated, north or south, if free to turn.

Comparable to the properties of attraction and repulsion of electric charges, like poles of magnets repel one another, and unlike poles attract each other. Although the magnetic effect of attraction or repulsion between a magnet and a magnetic material, such as iron, is the most readily observable, as stated previously, all matter have magnetic properties, even those not usually considered as being magnetic.

ELECTRIC FIELD

When a charged particle that is free to move is attracted to or repelled from another particle, it moves towards or away from the other particle. In order for this movement to take place an electric force must exist between the two particles as a result of the charges possessed by the particles. Since the particles initially are not physically in contact with each other but are separated, the force must be able to traverse the space between the particles to act on them. As stated previously, the source of a force need not make direct physical contact with a body in order to act upon it, but may act through a distance by the process of radiation.

The region within which there exists a force is known as a field, or a force field. The field does nothing; it is the force within the field that has the capacity to attract or repel particles or other substances. The field is just a means by which the boundaries and direction of a force may be described; the field is not the force itself. However, generally when the term field is used it automatically implies that there exists a force within the field, and the terms force and field are often used interchangeably.

It is known that all charged particles are surrounded by an electric field, which permits the charged particles to exert a force on other charged particles within the electric field, causing their movement towards or away from each other. The magnitude of the force (Fe) exerted on two charged particles (Q₁Q₂) that interact with each other through an electric field is proportional to the product of their charges divided by the square of the distance (d²) between them, so that Fe=k(Q₁Q₂)/d².

MAGNETIC FIELD

Similar to electric fields, magnetic fields also exist, which permit magnetic forces to act on remote objects without the magnetic source being physically in contact with them. A magnetic substance, such as a bar magnet, produces a magnet field that customarily has been thought to emerge from one end of the magnet and curve around to the other end, and to continue to flow through the magnet to the end from which it emerged, so that the field forms a closed loop. However, this may not exactly be the case, as discussed later. The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be found by sprinkling iron filings around the magnet, which will align themselves with the magnetic field of the magnet, as shown below.

Iron filings lined up by the magnetic field of a bar magnet.

At the poles, or ends of the magnet, where the filings are closest together, the magnetic field is strongest; toward the sides of the magnet, where the filings are farther apart, the magnetic field is weaker. Because the pole of a magnetized substance placed near a like pole of a magnet will be repelled from it but will be attracted to the other pole of the magnet, the magnetic field of a magnet is said to be directional, emanating from one pole and curving around to the other pole.

But this does not explain why a non-polarized magnetic substance, like a paper clip, will be attracted to both poles of a magnet. If the magnetic field flows only in one direction, it would be thought that the paper clip would be pushed away from one end and drawn toward the other. In order to account for this we have to re-evaluate the commonly held belief, that the magnetic field of a magnet emanates from one of its poles and flows around to the other pole.

If the north pole of a magnet is held slightly above the south pole of the pointer of a compass, the pointer will not only point to the magnet’s north pole but will tilt upwards. This indicates that the direction of the magnet’s magnetic field is into the magnet’s north pole. If the direction of the magnetic field were away from the pole the pointer would tilt downwards. If the south pole of the magnet is now placed where the north pole had been, the compass pointer will swing around, so that its north pole is pointing to the magnet’s south pole. It too will be tilted upwards, as had the other pole. This indicates that the direction of the magnetic field is into the magnet’s south pole. Thus, the field around a magnet is into the magnet at both poles. That is why a non-magnetized substance like a paper clip will be attracted to either end of a magnet.

The magnetic field surrounding a magnet exerts a force on objects placed within the field. The magnetic force of attraction or repulsion (Fm) acting upon a magnetically polarized substance within the field of a magnet is proportional to the product of the pole strengths (p₁p₂) of the magnet and the substance, and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (d²) between them, so that Fm=k(p₁p₂)/d². Notice the similarity between the equation for the magnitude of the magnetic force acting on magnetic poles and the equation for the electric force acting on electric charges.

MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS RELATIONSHIP

A magnetic field not only exerts a force on magnetic substances, but also affects electrically charged particles that move through the field, exerting a force on them. The force on a charged particle moving perpendicularly through a magnetic field is always at right angles to both the velocity of the charged particle and to the magnetic field, as shown in the following sketch. As the particle travels through the field, the force acts to move the particle in the direction v’.

Direction of magnetic force F as P cuts across the magnetic field with velocity V.

As stated, the force F is exerted on an electrically charged particle. If a magnetized object were placed within the magnetic field, the force acting on it would be in the same direction as the field and would tend to align the object parallel with the field. So, in the sketch if P were a magnet the force exerted on it would tend to deflect it so as to align it with the magnetic field, similar to the manner in which the iron filings aligned themselves parallel to the magnetic field of the bar magnet in the foregoing illustration.

It should be noted that the electrically charged particle P must be in motion relative to the magnetic field, cutting through the field, in order for the field to exert a force on it. It doesn’t matter whether the particle is moving with respect to the field, or if the field is moving with respect to the particle, as long as there is relative movement between the two. If the particle is stationary or moving parallel to the field, no force is exerted on the particle.

Not only can a magnetized substance affect electrically charged particles, but the inverse is true; charged particles can affect magnetic substances, as evidenced by the deflection of the needle of a compass placed near a wire in which electric current is flowing. The flow of electrons in a circuit produces a magnetic field around the conductor carrying the current. The magnetic field is at right angle to the conductor and to the direction of electron flow. The magnetic field associated with the electron flow exhibits the same magnetic effects as it would if produced by a magnet. For instance, if a piece of iron is placed within the magnetic field produced by an electric current, it will become magnetized. Similarly, the magnetic field associated with a magnet can induce an electric current to flow through a conductor, if the conductor and the magnetic field are in motion relative to each other. This is the principle utilized in electric motors and generators.

Thus, a flow of electrons always generates a magnetic field; and since the relative movement of a magnetic field with respect to a conductor will cause a current to flow through the conductor, an electric field must exist that cause the electrons to flow. Therefore, a flow of electrons is always accompanied by both an electric and magnetic field, and a magnetic field always has associated with it an electric field; one field cannot exist without the other. Accordingly, the term electromagnetism is commonly used to describe electric and magnetic phenomena.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetic interactions with material substances result in work being done on them, and therefore requires the transmission of energy. The electric and magnetic fields of radiated electromagnetic waves is a means by which the required energy may be transmitted. Radiation takes place even when relatively near objects are involved. In the attraction of a close object to a magnet the movement is caused by a magnetic field that is radiated to the object, as the magnetic field is acting on the object through a distance. Likewise, electric fields are radiated between charged particles. If two close, but separated, metals plates are charged, so that one is negative and the other is positive, an electric field exists between the plates, which can result in the movement of a charged particle placed within the field. Since the plates are not in contact, the interaction of the field with the particle is by the process of radiation.

In both cases, the movements occur as a result of the electric or magnetic field, so the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic waves are carriers of energy that can be utilized in a multitude of ways. For instance, the electromagnetic energy supplied by the sun is utilized in photosynthesis, as has been discussed. Therefore, electromagnetic energy may be radiated to substances that are in very close proximity, or may be transmitted by radiation thousands and millions of miles, as it is in the case of sunlight.

Electromagnetic radiation does not require a material substance in order for it to be propagated through space. However, its speed, direction and amount is influenced by matter. For instance, the speed of light rays passing through water will be slowed compared to their speed through a vacuum, and will be deflected with respect to their original line of travel; and material substances absorb light rays of certain frequencies while reflecting others.

Electromagnetic radiation is believed to consist of both waves and particles, with a particular radiation being predominantly in one form or the other. Electromagnetic waves constitute a wide spectrum of frequencies at which they may oscillate as they are radiated through space, with each frequency having a specific wavelength. The spectrum of an electromagnetic radiation ranges from the extremely short wavelengths of cosmic rays and electrons to radio waves hundreds of miles in length. In between these wavelengths are gamma rays, hard X rays, softer X rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared heat waves, and microwaves. The product of the wavelength and frequency of any wave is a constant, c, the speed of light, which is approximately 186,000 miles per second (3 X 10⁸ meters/second). The electric and magnetic fields of the wave carries with it electromagnetic energy, which can perform work upon substances with which the wave comes in contact.

Whereas electromagnetic radiation does not require the presence of matter for propagation, there are mechanical transmission of waves, such as sound waves, that are conveyed only through matter. Sound waves can not be transmitted in a vacuum, as they are dependent upon the motion of molecules of material substances to convey the waves to the ear.

Therefore sound waves are not an independent source of energy, but are dependent upon whatever form of energy initiates the mechanical vibration of the molecules. For instance, the sounds a person hears from a telephone is initially caused by the transfer of the energy of electric impulses that vibrates the small telephone speaker, which in turn results in the vibration of the air molecules that impact upon the ear and are interpreted as sounds.

To summarize, the energy forms existing at the atomic level are of two kinds, electromagnetic and gravitational, with the first being of much greater magnitude and importance in the functioning of atoms. Above the atomic level, the energy forms are also electromagnetic and gravitational (the earth’s gravity). Thus, all energy initially exists either as electromagnetic or gravitational energy. We will now see if these two can be united into one form by investigating the nature of gravity.

GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY

We are all familiar with the fact that the earth is surrounded by a gravity field, but little is known as to its source. However, there are two facts that are known for sure: (1) The earth’s gravity field is directed toward the center of the earth. Regardless of where an object is within the gravity field, it is always pulled towards the earth’s center; and (2) The force of gravity Fg between two bodies is proportional to the product of the masses of the two bodies divided by the square of the distance between them; that is, Fg=G(m₁m₂)/d².

Notice the similarity between this equation and those for the electric force, Fe=k(Q₁Q₂)/d²), and the magnetic force, Fm=k’(p₁p₂)/d². Whereas Fg is a function of the masses of the bodies, Fe is a function of the charges of the bodies and Fm is a function of the magnetic pole strengths of the bodies. If the relationship of the mass, charge, and pole strength of a body could be determined, then the relationship of the three forces could be established. As discussed, a relationship is known to exist between the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic waves. Perhaps there is also a relationship between those fields and the gravitational field.

In another paper linked to this paper called The Nature of Gravity, it was concluded that the earth’s magnetic field is actually the earth’s gravity field, for reasons discussed in the paper. It is pointed out in the paper that all matter consists of mass, and mass is composed primarily of electrons, protons, and neutrons, each of which have magnetic moments associated with them. Therefore, all material substances are affected by both the earth’s gravitation and magnetic fields.

There are many similarities that exists between the earth’s magnetic field and the earth’s gravity field. As noted in the paper:

• Both the earth’s magnetic and gravity fields are essentially uniform over the entire earth’s surface.

• Both the magnetic and gravity fields are vertically orientated.

• Both the magnetic and gravity fields attract material substances towards the center of the earth.

• Both the magnetic and gravity fields can accelerate material substances.

• Both the magnetic and gravity fields accelerate material substances at a constant rate that is independent of the magnitude of the object’s mass or magnetic pole strength.

Notice that two basic attributes of gravity, that it attracts material substances toward the center of the earth, and that it produces a constant acceleration of all material substances without regard to their mass or magnetic susceptibility, are common to both gravity and the earth’s magnetic field. No other force or field, except electric,  is known to have these capabilities. Because of the noted similarities of the two fields a further look into the earth’s magnetic field is warranted.

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

It is well known that a powerful magnetic field surrounds the earth, as if a huge bar magnet with a north and south pole were embedded within the inner core of the earth from which the field emanates. The inner core of the earth has a radius of about 800 miles and is believed to be liquid, except at the very center of the earth where the extreme pressure causes the core to be solidified. The core is thought to consist largely of iron, with a small percentage of nickel and other elements. Temperatures in the core may be as high as 12,000° F. The magnetic field is believed to be produced by convection currents of charged particles of molten metal circulating within the liquid core of the earth, which, in conjunction with the iron of the solid inner core, generates the earth’s magnetic field. The field is not limited to the surface of the earth, but is radiated into the space around the earth, as well.

It has been found that at the geomagnetic poles the intensity of the earth’s magnetic field is doubled what it is at the geomagnetic equator. The reason for this is that the magnetic field surrounding the earth is split at the poles, so that half the field covers the western hemisphere and the other half covers the eastern hemisphere. Therefore, the strength of the field at each geomagnetic pole that encompasses but a single hemisphere is only half the strength of the total field at the pole. Thus, from each pole to the equator the magnetic field is essentially a constant. (Notice the split of the magnetic field at the poles in the previous illustration of the field around a bar magnet.)

Although the magnitude of the earth’s magnetic field is essentially a constant from the geomagnetic poles to the geomagnetic equator, the direction of the field varies at different latitudes of the earth. At the magnetic poles the field is essentially vertical and directed towards the center of the earth, whereas at the equator, although the magnetic field is still vertical, the field is parallel to the center of the earth rather than being pointed towards it. Thus, at the equator there would be no force directed from the magnetic field towards the center of the earth, if it weren’t for the fact that the magnetic force associated with the field is a vector quantity, having both a vertical and a horizontal component, as well as direction. The magnitude and direction of the magnetic force at any point in time is equal to the vector sum of its two components forces, which are always at right angle to each.

Measurements have shown that at the geomagnetic equator one component of the magnetic force is at a maximum and directed towards the center of the earth, whereas the other component is at a minimum. At the poles, the opposite is true; the maximum and minimum components are revered. Throughout the various latitudes of the earth, each component of the magnetic force probably varies proportionally, so that their vector sum is a constant and orientated towards the center of the earth. Thus, the magnetic force directed toward the center of the earth remains relatively constant over the entire surface of the earth. The following sketch illustrates this. Fa and Fb represent the two component forces of the total magnetic force Fm, which equals the vector sum of Fa and Fb. P is an object upon which Fm is exerting a force.

Magnetic Force Components at Various Latitudes

As previously stated, a magnetic field always has associated with it an electric field, so that it is in effect an electromagnetic field. Therefore, the magnetic field emanating from the earth’s core must actually be an electromagnetic field. Electromagnetic waves are customarily depicted as being propagated through space in the form of an electric field and a magnetic field at right angle to each other and at right angle to the direction of propagation. Therefore, in the sketch, the force Fa could be the force associated with the electric field and Fb, the force associated with the magnetic field; and the resultant force Fm could actually be the force of gravity.

In fact, this may actually be the case, that the earth’s magnetic field is really the earth’s gravity field. As stated previously, the acceleration on a body caused by a magnetic field is independent of the magnetic pole strength of the body; and it can be shown similarly that the acceleration of a charged body caused by an electric field is independent of the magnitude of the charge associated with the body. And it has long been established that the acceleration of a body due to gravity is independent of the mass of the body. Therefore, since the acceleration of a body is independent of its mass, charge, and magnetic strength there is no reason why the acceleration due to gravity cannot be the vector sum of the accelerations caused by the electric and magnetic fields of the earth’s magnetic field.

If this be the case, then the gravity field consists of the electromagnetic field emanating from the center of the earth, which has long been considered as the earth’s magnetic field. Accordingly, the vertical component of the magnetic field is actually the vertical component of the gravity field and the horizontal electric component is the horizontal component of the gravity field, with the gravity field being the vector sum of the two components.

However, as explained in the paper on gravity, for the earth’s gravity and magnetic fields to be identical there needs to be a ninety-degree phase shift between the electric and magnetic components of the earth's magnetic field; that is, when the electric field is at its peak the magnetic field must be at its minimum, and when the magnetic field is at its peak the electric field must be at it minimum.

This is probably the case, considering how the earth’s magnetic field is believed to be generated. As has been stated, the earth’s magnetic field is thought to be produced by convection currents of charged particles of molten metal circulating within the liquid core of the earth, which, in conjunction with the iron of the solid inner core, generates the earth’s magnetic field. Whenever an electric current of varying magnitude causes a magnetic field to be generated, there is normally a ninety-degree phase difference between the current and the magnetic field due to the inductance (inertia) of the system. As the earth’s magnetic field is a function of the current that produces the field, this phase shift probably is inherent in the field.

In the foregoing sketch the earth’s magnetic field is shown being directed toward the center of the earth at both poles. This is consistent with the previous discussion that stated that the magnetic field of a magnet is into the magnet at both poles. At the magnetic equator the direction of the vertical component Fb is reversed. This indicates that the earth’s magnetic field is propagated through space in the form of a sine wave.

The magnetic field of the earth may be considered as originating from a point source, as the radius of the magnetic core of the earth is small compared to the radius of the earth. To show how the field might look from a point source, the previous illustration of the filings around a magnet was reconstructed in a manner that placed the two poles of the magnet together, as shown below.

Magnetic Field of a Point Source

As previously stated, the magnetic field is directed inwards at both poles, so all the field lines are flowing in towards the poles, which in this case represents the center of the earth. It doesn’t take much imagination to see that this magnetic field easily could be the earth’s gravity field.

UNIVERSAL ENERGY

If, in accordance with the foregoing, the earth’s gravity field is the resultant of the components that constitute the earth’s magnetic field, then gravitational energy is really magnetic, or electromagnetic, energy. In this section we shall discuss the possibility that all energy manifestations are derived from a single Universal Energy, from whence come all the electric and magnetic phenomena and energy forms in the universe; and that not only is there a single Universal Energy, but there is only one, single Universal Mass in the universe.

The primary source used for some of the statements made in the following is the publication Introduction to Atomic and Nuclear Physics by Professor Harvey E. White (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1964). The page numbers following such statements refer to that publication.

UNIVERSAL MASS

In the linked paper Einstein’s Mistake? the proposition was advanced that in the beginning the total energy in the universe was swirling around at the speed of light. When some of this Universal Energy slowed down, for one reason or another, to a speed less than that of light it condensed into mass. Thus, all mass within the universe is of the same nature and substance, and consequently there is only one kind of mass in the whole universe. The masses of electrons, protons, and neutrons are all comprised of the same basic material. This is consistent with the Periodic Table of Elements of chemistry, which distinguishes the physical and chemical properties of all the known elements in the universe primarily on the basis of the number and arrangement of their atomic particles. Thus, Universal Energy is the source not only of all the energy forms in the universe, but of all the material substances, as well.

Since it is presumed that there is only a single energy source in the universe, then the interactions within an atom must be a form of Universal Energy. Accordingly, the following discusses the relationship between nuclear interactions and Universal Energy.

RELATIONSHIP OF ATOMIC INTERACTIONS AND UNIVERSAL ENERGY

It was previously stated that there are four major interactions that take place within an atom. The accepted values of the strength of each relative to the strong interaction are shown below. Calculations of the relative strength of the interactions were also made using appropriate equations (see Appendix), and are presented below, also.

RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF ATOMIC INTERACTIONS

                                              Accepted Value              Calculated Value

Strong interaction                              1                                      1
Electromagnetic interaction                1 x 10 ^-2                           1.46
Weak interaction                               1 x10 ^-13                            --
Gravitational interaction                     1 x 10 ^-38                          1.18 x 10 ^-36

The strong interaction is that which holds together the particles located in the nucleus of an atom. Since the nucleus of an atom is comprised essentially of protons and neutrons, the strong interaction is what keeps together the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.  It was stated before that the strong interaction probably is an electromagnetic force. Accordingly, the electric and magnetic attractive forces existing between a proton and neutron were calculated.

Since a neutron is believed to be electrically neutral, it might be asked, “How can there be  an electric force between a proton and a neutron?” The answer is that it has been found that at very close proximity to one another, a very strong attractive force exists between protons, and between protons and neutrons (p.450).

This attractive force possibly may be a result of the inherent spin of the nuclear particles of an atom. The association of a single proton with a single neutron in the nucleus of an atom is called a deuteron. It is known that the neutrons and protons of deuterons spin on their axes. Although the spins of the protons and neutrons of deuterons are parallel to each other, the magnetic moment produced by the spin of the neutron is opposite in direction to that of the proton (p.457). The opposite magnetic moment of the neutron with respect to the proton indicates that their magnetic poles are of opposite polarity, and therefore attract each other.

The moment of a particle is an indication of the force applied to the particle that causes it to have a particular momentum. Momentum is the property of a moving body or particle that is determined by the product of its mass and velocity. If a particle is moving in a curved path, it has angular momentum, due to its angular velocity. The magnetic moment of a particle is the magnetic force acting upon a particle that results in its momentum.

A proton not only has an electric charge, but also has magnetic momentum. The positive charge and spin of a proton is what gives rise to its magnetic moment (p.457). As stated previously,  the charge of a particle, such as that of a proton, is not something that is added onto the proton; it is an inherent attribute of the particle, and is probably the result of the spin of the proton. Since a neutron also has spin, but generates a magnetic moment that is opposite to that of a proton, probably the electric charge causing the magnetic momentum of a neutron is also opposite to that of a proton; that is, is negative with respect to the charge of a proton. Therefore, an attractive electric force would exist between the two at close proximity.

Thus, both magnetic and electric fields exist between the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It was found by calculations that the magnetic force Fm between a proton and neutron relative to the electric force Fe is extremely small, being only 1.11 x 10^-17 the magnitude of Fe, and therefore may be neglected. Accordingly, the strong interaction holding together the nuclear particles appears to be essentially an electric force produced by the spinning of the particles. The small magnitude of the magnetic force Fm relative to Fe may be because of the greater mass of a proton or neutron (compared to an electron), which causes them to spin much slower than an electron, reducing their magnetic moments to a relatively small value (p.457).

Although the calculated value of Fe would seem to be extremely small, it should be noted that Fe increases as the square of the distance d between the proton and neutron decreases (Fe=kQpQn /d²). Since the nucleus of an atom is extremely small, its diameter being in the order of 1x10^-12 centimeters, the distance d between the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is infinitesimally small. Therefore, as d² approaches zero, the force of attraction between neutrons and protons approaches infinity. This accounts for the enormously strong force that holds together the particles in the nucleus of an atom. In the determination of Fe, taken into account was the fact that the magnetic moment of a neutron is 0.685 the magnetic moment of a proton (p.457), and that the electric charge of a proton or a neutron is probably proportional to its magnetic moment.

The electromagnetic interaction is that which binds the electrons to the nucleus of an atom as they orbit it. The calculated value of the electromagnetic interaction Fem was found to be 1.46 Fe (see Appendix), whereas its accepted value is 1 x 10^-2. The reason for the difference may be because all factors affecting its value are not known and thus have not been taken into account. For instance, since an electron produces a magnetic field due to its orbit around the nucleus of an atom, as well as because of its spin, the vector sum of the two is required to be used in the determining the value of the electromagnetic interaction (p.147).

Also, the distance d² between the electron and proton has been ignored in making the calculation. If in calculating Fem the distance d between the electron and the nucleus of the atom were about 10 times the distance between the neutron and proton of Fe, the relative value of Fem would be approximately 1 x 10^-2 Fe, or equivalent to the accepted value of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong interaction. Since the diameter of the nucleus of an atom is about 1x10^-12 centimeter (cm), for the calculated value of the electromagnetic interaction to equal the accepted value, the distance of an electron from the nucleus would be about 1 x 10^-11 cm, which seems reasonable.

The weak interaction, which accounts for the radioactive decay of atoms, was not calculated for lack of adequate data. The gravitational interaction Fg relative to the strong interaction was calculated and found to be 1.18 x 10 ^-36, compared to its accepted value of 1 x 10^-38. The determination of Fg was based upon the masses of a proton and a neutron. Although the calculated value is much larger than the accepted value, it is still considerably  smaller than the strong interaction. Since all the forces within the nucleus of an atom interact with each other, if their effects on each other were known, possibly the two figures would be in closer agreement.

The calculated values of the interactions, although not in exact agreement with their accepted values, do follow within reason the same pattern as the accepted values. Accordingly, there may be some validity as to the conclusions that can be drawn from them. One conclusion is that the strong interaction binding together the particles within the nuclei of atoms, specifically protons and neutrons, is primarily due to the electric field existing between them. Another conclusion is that the gravitational interaction, although related to mass, has electromagnetic aspects also, since material substances are comprised essentially of electromagnetic particles, like electrons, protons, and neutrons. And, of course, the electromagnetic interaction is an electromagnetic phenomenon, as is the weak interaction, as previously discussed.

Therefore, all forms of energy, both internal and external to atoms, are either electromagnetic or gravitational. Previous discussions have equated the earth's gravity system with its magnetic field; and the above discussion has pointed out that although the gravitational interaction is associated with mass, mass itself consists of particles that generate electromagnetic fields that interchange electromagnetic energy among the atomic particles. If these deductions are correct, then all energy manifestations of Universal Energy are a form of gravitational energy, which itself is the resultant of the electric and magnetic components of electromagnetic energy. Further discussion of the relationship of these energies is presented in the following scenario of how the universe may have evolved.

EVOLUTION OF THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE

It is assumed in the following that: In The Beginning there came from a source unknown an infinite quantity of Universal Energy, swirling at the speed of light. This energy may have originally occupied a tiny space under extremely high pressure, which exploded into trillions of swirling energy systems. (This is analogous to the Big Bang theory, except here it is energy rather than mass that explodes.) Each energy system consisted of a huge quantity of the swirling Universal Energy, and at the center of each existed an enormous concentration of the energy, in the form of a large Black Hole. A Black Hole is known to embody an infinitely large gravitational field, which possibly is caused by the angular momentum of the swirling energy. The tremendous gravity field of the Black Hole probably is what holds the system together.

For one reason or another, parts of a swirling energy system slowed down to a speed less than the speed of light, and formed small material particles known as electrons. At lesser speeds, more massive particles were formed, called protons. The particles continued to swirl in space and to also spin on their axes, which caused the particles to have angular momenta. Since the angular momenta of protons and electrons are equal, the spin velocity of protons is considerably less than that of electrons because of the greater mass of protons (p.457). Inasmuch as the angular momentum of electrons and protons are equal, their electric charges are equal, even though the mass of protons are so much larger. It may be that the angular momenta of all mass manifestations are of a constant value, and equivalent to the angular momentum of Universal Energy.

Because of their spin and mass, the electrons and protons that formed generated electric and magnetic fields, so that forces of attraction existed between the two. When an electron approached near enough to a proton it may have been captured by the proton, which then became a neutron. Protons and neutrons that came in close proximity were strongly attracted to each other and formed deuterons, which became the nuclei of atoms. Electrons not captured by protons orbited around the nucleus of the atom, because of the electromagnetic field generated by the particles within the nucleus.

Probably the first atoms to be formed were hydrogen and helium, as they have simple atomic configurations. Hydrogen is the lightest of all atoms, and has but a single proton in its nucleus, around which a single electron orbits. The atoms of these two gaseous elements are the major constituents of the sun, and probably of all stars, as well. The sun is estimated to be about 4-5 billion years old. During the first 50 million years in the development of the sun, the materials of the sun contracted to approximately its present size.  

It is believed that the contraction of the sun's gases resulted in the release of energy, which heated the sun’s interior. At a critical temperature and pressure, the heating of the core of the sun overcame the force of repulsion existing between the positively charges nuclei of the hydrogen atoms, so that fusion occurred. In this process two hydrogen nuclei combine to make one helium nucleus, and an enormous amount of electromagnetic energy is released. The energy that is emitted from the fusion of the nuclei of just two hydrogen atoms is equivalent to the amount of energy from the explosion of 100 billion one megaton hydrogen bombs.

The electromagnetic energy produced by the sun is continuously radiated into space, and is the primary source of the maintenance of life on earth, as all foods and fuels on earth are derived directly or indirectly from the energy of sunlight through chemical processes such as, photosynthesis, as has been discussed. As for the fusion process, it is a continuing phenomenon, which will continue as long as the sun exists. The sun is estimated to have enough hydrogen fuel to last another 5 billion years. The fusion process is not unique to our sun, but is common in the development of all the stars in the universe.

At some point in time, more complex elements formed in addition to the two mentioned. Their atoms contained a multitude of protons and neutrons in their nuclei and a number of electrons orbiting around them. Through chemical processes the elements combined into molecules of various material substances, like cosmic dust particles and gases. It is believed that the earth was initially formed by the condensation of these cosmic dust particles and gases, which came together because of gravitational attraction. The condensation produced heat, which resulted in the smelting of the substances, and eventually the stratification of the system into the earth’s present structure. Geologically the earth consists of several parts: the gaseous atmosphere; the liquid hydrosphere, or bodies of water; and the solid lithosphere (crust), mantle, and core of the earth.

The sun and the earth, and all the planets, generate gravity fields, which have the effect of attracting other bodies to them. Since the mass of the sun is about 300,000 times the mass of the earth, and about 1000 times the mass of Jupiter, the largest planet, the gravity field of the sun overshadows those of the planets of the solar system. Because of their gravity systems, large groupings of stars have occurred, so that there are an infinite number of solar systems and galaxies in the universe. At the center of a collection of galaxies that constitute an energy system probably lies a Black Hole, which may have developed in the manner previously discussed.

The sun and some of the planets, and possibly all, in addition to gravity fields, also generate magnetic fields, with the sun's being much stronger than those of the planets. The earth’s magnetic field, as has been discussed, is due to the spinning of the free electrons of the elements in the core of the earth, which produce electric charges and potential differences that cause electric currents to flow. This results in the alignment of the magnetic axes of the flowing electrons, so that a large magnetic field is produced that emanates from the core and surrounds the earth. Similar processes probably take place on all the celestial bodies. It has been previously stated that the earth’s magnetic field is also its gravity field. If this assumption is correct, then this is applicable to the sun and other bodies, as well.

A distinction should be made between electromagnetic fields and electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic fields remain relatively at rest with respect to their source. They attract objects within the field to the source, with energy being supplied by the source in doing the work of moving the object to itself. In contrast, electromagnetic waves are disconnected from their source. As they travel through space, they carry electromagnetic energy with them. The energy then is expended when they come in contact with a material body. For instance, the energy of certain frequencies of the light radiated from the sun may be expended by burning a person’s skin when coming in contact with it for a certain period of time.

Therefore, the earth’s magnetic field possibly may not be radiated from the core as electromagnetic waves, as previously has been assumed. It may emanate from the earth’s core as a uniform field of constant magnitude, similar to the electrostatic field that exists between two electrically charged conductors separated from each other. If this be the case, it wouldn’t changed the previous conclusions pertaining to the earth’s magnetic field, as the earth’s magnetic field is known to consist of both a vertical and horizontal component. It doesn’t matter if one of these components is magnetic and the other electric, or if both are magnetic; the resultant of the two components would still be the gravity field, and would still conform to the field shown in the illustration of the magnetic field of a point source.

The question as to how electromagnetic waves are propagated through space often has been pondered. At one time it was believed that there existed an invisible universal substance called ether, which acted as a medium for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Investigations have shown that such a material substance does not exist. However, perhaps there is a universal non-material substance that may facilitate the transmission of electromagnetic waves, as discussed below.

In the process of transmitting radio and television programs, electric impulses cause the transmitting antenna of the station to oscillate at the frequency the station is broadcasting. The oscillations produce electromagnetic waves, which are propagated through space. Perhaps, however, rather than electromagnetic waves being something that is propagated through space detached from its source, the following transpires.

The Universal Energy that is everywhere is in a state of tranquility, or rest, swirling around at a constant velocity. Although the material objects of the universe are also in motion at steady velocities, at speeds lesser than that of the energy, the whole system is in a state of tranquility. To visualize this, picture the earth traveling around the sun at about 66,000 miles per hour and rotating on its axis at close to 1,000 miles an hour. Picture also a quiet pond of water. The water appears perfectly calm even though it is traveling at the same speeds as the earth.

Now a pebble is dropped into the quiet pond, and ripples occur on the surface of the water, which spread out in all directions from the point where the pebble enters the water. Analogous to this, the electromagnetic oscillations of the transmission antenna of a radio station may set up corresponding oscillations in the Universe Energy that is in contact with it, which spread out in all directions from the antenna, like the ripples in the disturbed water of the pond. The electromagnetic energy of the transmitter is transferred to the ripples of the Universal Energy, with the amplitudes and frequencies of the ripples corresponding to that of the signals being transmitted by the station. The Universal Energy ripples convey and transfer the energy to material bodies with which they interact, and is what we normally call electromagnetic waves.

The electromagnetic waves transmitted by radio and television stations are artificially generated by man. Natural electromagnetic waves, like those from the sun, probably are produced similarly; that is, electromagnetic oscillations are produced by the fusion process, the energies of which are transferred to the adjacent Universal Energy and propagated through space as electromagnetic waves. The same process probably occurs also at the atomic level. The motions of the particles within an atom disturbs the tranquility of the Universal Energy in the atom, so that it transfers energy among the particles, as appropriate.

However, these electromagnetic waves are different than the gravity field of the sun. They transfer the energy of the sun to other bodies, but do not constitute its gravity field. The sun's gravity field is that which attracts the planets to it, and is probably a result of its magnetic field, just as the earth's is.

In summary:

Universal Energy exists everywhere in the universe, sometimes in the form of energy and sometimes in the form of mass, and is the ultimate source of all other energy and mass forms. Oscillations of material substances produce disturbances in the Universal Energy, which are propagated throughout space as electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves serve to convey energy from their source to material substances with which they come in contact, and perform work on them.  

Electric currents circulating in the core of a celestial body produce a magnetic or an electromagnetic field, which emanates from the core of the body into the space around it. The field is actually the gravity field, which is the vector sum of the two components of the magnetic field; or if an electromagnetic field is generated in the core, gravity is the vector sum of the electric and magnetic fields of the electromagnetic waves produced.

The sequence of events then are: From Universal Energy comes Universal Mass, from which comes elemental particles of mass like electrons, protons and neutrons, which have angular momentum because of their spin. The spinning electrons produce electric, magnetic, and gravitational fields, which attract them to other particles, like protons.

The protons and neutrons also have spinning momenta, which produce strong attractive forces between protons and neutrons when they come close to each other, so that they form the nuclei of atoms. The nucleus of an atom spins as a unit, producing an electric field that attracts electrons, causing them to orbit  the nucleus and to become an integral part of the atom. The atoms combine into molecules, and molecules combine with other molecules, forming the more complex structures of material substances.

It should be noted that electric, magnetic, and gravitational energies are not different kinds of energies, but are all Universal Energy. Electric, magnetic and gravitational.fields just act to transfer Universal Energy from one point to another. Therefore, the characterization of an energy or a field as being electric, magnetic, etc, merely signifies the type of function performed by the energy or field, not that the energy transported is a separate energy type; it is still Universal Energy. 

The ideas that have been presented in this paper need to be verified by scientific investigations. It is hoped that those with the proper expertise will be inspired to pursue such inquiries.

APPENDIX

Calculations of Atomic Interactions

A. STRONG INTERACTION

Electric Force Fe Between a Proton and Neutron
Fe= k QpQn /d²
k= 9x10⁹ kg m³ /coul² sec²
Qp (proton charge) =Qe (electron charge) = 1.6019 x 10 ^-19 coulomb
Qn (neutron charge) = 0.685 Qp (page 457)

Fe = [(9 x 10 ⁹ kg m³/coul²sec²) x (1.6019 x 10^-19coul) x .685(1.6019 x 10 ^-19)coul] / d²
     = (1.58 x 10 ^-28 kg m³ / sec² ) / d²

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Magnetic Force Fm Between a Proton and Neutron
Fm= k PpPn /d²
k = (1 x10^-7) kg m /A² sec²
Pp= magnetic pole strength of a proton in ampere meters (Am)
Pn= magnetic pole strength of a neutron =0.685 Pp (p.457)
1A= (1 coul /sec)
1 proton = (1.6019 x 10^-19 coul /sec) Am

Fm=[(1x10^-7kg m /A²sec²) x (1.6019 x10^-19Am ) x .685(1.6019 x 10^-19Am)] / d²
     = ( 1.76 x 10^-45 kg m ³/ sec² ) / d²

Fm / Fe =( 1.76 x 10 ^-45) / ( 1.58 x 10 ^-28 ) = 1.11 x 10 ^-17

____________________________________________________________________

B. ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTION

Electromagnetic Force Fem Between a Proton and an Electron
Fem = k (QpQe) / d²
k= 9x10 ⁹ kg m³ /coul² sec²
Qp (proton charge) = Qe (electron charge) = 1.6019 x 10 ^-19 coulombs

Fem = [9 x 10 ⁹ kg m³/coul²sec²] x [(1.6019 x 10^-19coul)] ² / d²
        = (2.31 x 10 ^-28 kg m³ / sec² ) / d²

Fe    = (1.58 x 10 ^-28 kg m³ / sec² ) / d²

Fem (proton-electron)  = 1.46
Fe (proton -neutron)

_____________________________________________________________________

C. GRAVITATIONAL INTERACTION

Gravitation Force Fg Between a Proton and Neutron
Fg= G (MpMn) / d²
G = 6.67 x 10^-11 m³ / kg sec²
Mp (mass proton) =Mn (mass neutron) = 1.67 x 10^-27 kg

Fg = (6.67 x 10^-11 m³ / kg sec² ) x (1.67 x 10^-27 kg) ² / d²
     = (1.86 x 10^-64 kg m³ / sec² ) / d²

Fg / Fe = (1.86 x 10^-64 ) / (1.58 x 10 ^-28 ) = 1.18 x 10 ^-36

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

To download graphics: Click each item below one at a time, and save graphic to the same folder as text saved to, using the filename shown (ex: 1IrFlg.jpg). After saving each graphic, click the browser's Back button to return here, and repeat for each graphic. Make sure when you download the graphics listed below that you use the extension shown for each filename.

1IrFlg.jpg          2MagFld.jpg          3EthMagFld.jpg          4PtSrFld.jpg          navbprev.gif
Iron Filings        Magnetic Force      Mag.Components       Point Source          Beginning

Beginning