The first generation Japanese migrants of the mid to late 19th century era (Issei)and the post 1945 era Japanese migrants (New Issei or Shin Issei) have brought diverse Japanese religious traditions such as Buddhism and New Religions to America via Hawaii and California. (N1)Isseis and New Isseis include teachers, priests, missionaries, wives of American servicemen ("warbrides" senso hanayome) and students. (N2)

Examples of Japanese religions in America are Buddhist (e.g. Jodo Shinshu, Soto Zen and Rinzai Zen), Buddhist New Religions (e.g. Soka Gakkai) and Non-Buddhist New Religion groups (e.g. Konkokyo, Perfect Liberty, Seicho no ie, Tenrikyo and Tensho Kotai Jingukyo)

I have created a web page for some of these groups which includes brief information on founder/s, founding year and rituals plus a collection of links to the English websites

Some of the socio-cultural features of Japanese religions in America are summarized below:

Participant life histories (e.g. testimonies and autobiographies) contain diverse thematic "events", elements such as cross-cultural encounters, illness and family conflicts. Common events depicted are powerful rituals that "transform" participants' lives. Participants narrate that rituals have provided a mean by which to "resolve" various crises experienced by them. Examples of these rituals include Buddhist chanting, Zen meditation and a variety of healing rituals.

Symbolic forms of rituals and narratives are a series of concrete symbolic actions that connote multiple "meanings" and thus are multivocal. Multivocality of narrative and ritual meanings allows multiple interpretations by different ethnic groups and actors. (N3)

Yutaka Yamada's upcoming book Purifying the Living and Purifying the Dead analyzes the themes and symbols of life history narratives of the members of a Japanese New Religion in the United States to generalize the "structure" of the life history narratives.

The ethnic demographic features of Japanese religions in America are characterized by two types. One type is "ethnic religious institutions"(Kashima 1977), an organization for and by Japanese-Americans (N4) with a homogeneous ethnic membership. The other type are groups with non Japanese members and multi-ethnic membership. Examples of a multi-ethnic group is Soka Gakkai and a Non Buddhist New Religion group that Yamada studied.

Historic, cultural or a combination of the two approaches are taken in the study of Japanese religions in America. A brief overview of such studies follows:

a) Historical Approach
Examples of historical literature that focus on topics such as Japanese-American history, development of religious groups in Japan and the United States, summary of teachings/theology and demographic profiles of the group are: Bloom(1998), Fields(1992), Hurst(1998), Kashima(1977), Melton and Jones (1994), Metraux(1994) and Seager(1999).

b) Cultural Approach
These works focus on the "culture" of the group via utilization of anthropological data collection methods such as interview, questionnaire and participant observation. Although many authors are not anthropologists, their approach is "ethnographic". Examples of such works are: Ellwood(1974), Ellwood and Partin(1988), Hori(1998), Kashima(1977) and Yamada(1989).

c) Combination of Historic and Cultural Approaches
Two works are noteworthy since either they combine the two approaches or hint at the relationship of the two approaches. Kashima's work is the ethnohistory and ethnography of Jodo Shinshu(Buddhist churches of America) which combines the historical and cultural approach. Field's work is primarily a history of the Caucasian-American Zen movement but hints at the significance of "culture" via rich biographical accounts of Japanese-American and Caucasian Zen participants (e.g. Sokei-an, Senzaki, Suzuki, Kapleau and Aitken). Field also emphasizes the cultural continuity of Zen in America by relating it to the American New Religion of Theosophy. (N5)

Selected English bibliography of Japanese religion in America follows:

The listed literature is not comprehensive. The author has chosen literature based on his cultural anthropological interests.

The literature on Zen is huge and my selection is based on my anthropological interests. I am a novice in Zen studies and thus welcome any input and suggestions on literature that describes anthropology/sociology of Japanese Zen in America.

Separate descriptions for the following are provided: a)Japanese bibliography or works by Japanese scholars and b)works by psychological anthropologists such as Lebra and Dahl. Email slametan@aol.com for this information.

Numerous Non Buddhist Japanese New Religions exist in the United States. Examples are: Konkokyo, Perfect Liberty, Seicho no ie, Tenrikyo and Tensho Kotai Jingukyo.

I have created a web page of these Japanese New Religions in America which includes brief information on founder/s, founding year and rituals plus a collection of links to the English websites

Yamada's upcoming book Purifying the Living and Purifying the Dead focuses on a Non-Buddhist group that he names as HL. HL has multiethnic demographic features (e.g. Japanese-American members and Caucasian-American members). Complete life history narratives of HL members were collected utilizing anthropological data collection methods such as interviews; ritual description is based on his extensive participant observations.

Series of "events" such as illness, family conflicts and performance of healing rituals form "episodes" such as dreams, healings and ancestral spirit experiences of HL member life histories. Events and symbols that constitute these "episodes" are the thematic elements of member life histories. By observing the interrelationship of these thematic elements and symbols, Yamada attempts to elucidate the "structure" of life history narratives.

The relationship between the above experiences and other shamanic experiences such as out of body experiences (OBE), altered state of consciousness (ASC) and trance (e.g. possession) is also explored.

Common events depicted in life histories are core healing ritual and a special prayer named Cleansing(Purification). It is a prayer done through body action to radiate healing light. It is believed that via this prayer, the spiritual energy of light will flow from one's body and completely heal any illness. Underlying this ritual of Cleansing(Purification) is the key concept of "suffering". Negative acts or events could occur previous to or during the healing and salvation process but these are reinterpreted as a means to achieve the positive end of healing and salvation. An additional feature of HL is the performance of ancestor worship rituals.

Ellwood(1974) wrote an ethnography of six Japanese New Religions in Los Angeles, California of the 1970's period (For brief profile summaries of these groups see http://members.aol.com/slametan/yjrl5.html). Utilizing participant observation and interviews, he describes rituals, segments of life histories, historical development of religious groups in Japan, the United States and organizational structures. His major focuses is on the Caucasian-American experience of Japanese religions.

The following English literature is useful in researching Japanese New Religions(including Non-Buddhist and Buddhist New Religions)

Earhart, Byron H.
1983 "The New Religions of Japan: A Bibliography of Western-Language Materials". Michigan Paper in Japanese Studies No.9, Center for Japanese Studies. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan.

Ellwood, Robert S.
1974 The Eagle and the Rising Sun: Americans and the New Religions of Japan. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press.

Melton, J. Gordon and Jones, Constance A.
1994 "New Japanese Religions in the United States." In Japanese New Religions in the West.. Edited by Peter B. Clarke and Jeffrey Somers. Surrey, England: Curzon Press.

Yutaka Yamada
Upcoming Purifying the Living and Purifying the Dead: Narratives of Religious Experience of Japanese-American and Caucasian Members of a Japanese New Religion in the United States.

Buddhist Pure Land Jodo Shinshu organizations in America are known as Buddhist Churches of America(hereafter, BCA).

The ethnographic/ethnohistoric studies of Buddhist Churches of America(hereafter BCA) was done by Kashima(1977). Utilizing questionnaires, interviews and participant observation, Kashima describes multiple socio-culture features of BCA such as its Japanese-American members, adoption of Protestant like ritual/organizational forms (e.g. Sunday Schools see p.152-159) many BCA rituals (Buddhist wedding p.129-130, Buddhist Sunday Schools p.152-159, Obon dance p.121 and food bazaar p.135-136), segment of life histories (Caucasian-American minister of BCA. See p.98-103) and a unique Nisei/Sansei Buddhist group(Kinnara. See p.90-92 and p.121)

Bloom, Alfred
1998 "Shin Buddhism in America: A Social Perspective". In The Faces of Buddhism in America. p.31-47. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth Tanaka. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Provides summary of BCA history, Japanese-American demographic features and current issues confronting BCA (e.g. ministry for non Japanese-Americans).

Kashima, Tetsuden
1977 Buddhism in America: The Social Organization of an Ethnic Religious Institution. Westport: Greenwood Press.

Seager, Richard Hughes
1999 Buddhism in America. NY: Columbia University Press
See Chapter 5 "Jodo Shinshu: America's Old-Line Buddhists" (p.51-69).

Hori (1998)compares US and Japanese Rinzai Zen and points out the socio-cultural features of American Rinzai Zen (ABC Zen Center)such as separate rooms for each Zen participant(p.56), distinction of public and private space(p.56), monk and laity hierarchy(p.65-66), master and student relationship as akin to therapist and client relationship(p.72-73) and perception of Kensho/Satori experience as distinct from secular experiences(p.76). One of the interesting descriptions provided is the non drinking of bowl wash water in the US. Although in Japanese Rinzai Zen monasteries Zen participants drink the wash water used for cleaning eating bowls, in the US this is thrown away(see p. 56). This hints at interesting underlying differences of Japanese and American notions of "purity."

Ellwood and Partin(1988) describe examples of Zazen experience and the development of American Zen including a biographical summary of Caucasian-American Zen teachers such as Philip Kapleau. Ellwood and Partin cite Kensho experience("breakthrough to enlightenment") from Kapleau's work(Kapleau 1980). (See p.232-235 for description of American Zen and p.234-235 for cited testimonies of Kensho experience "American Schoolteacher").

Ellwood, Robert S. and Partin, Harry B.
1988 Religious and Spiritual Groups in Modern America. NJ: Prentice Hall

Fields, Rick
1992(1981) How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America. Boulder: Shambala

Hori, G. Victor Sogen
1998 "Japanese Zen in America: Americanizing the Face in the Mirror." In The Faces of Buddhism in America. p.49-78. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth Tanaka. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Kapleau, Philip
1980(1965) The Three Pillars of Zen Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. Anchor Books/Doubleday.

Seager, Richard Hughes
1999 Buddhism in America. NY: Columbia University Press
See Chapter 7 "Zen and Its Flagship Institutions" (p.90-112)

Yamada's work (1989)is one of the rare studies of SG in Australia that parallels SG in America. Via detailed description of rituals (e.g. Gongyo, testimonies and discussion meetings), the role of public, private, formal and informal rituals are discussed. Yamada depicts the process of giving testimonies as a ritual process that forms a one-to-one relationship between members through informal means, ritualizing social interaction and providing horizontal linkage or network between individuals.

Ellwood(1974) and Ellwood and Partin(1988) describe the ritual features of SG such as Daimoku, Gongyo, "district meeting"(zadankai), songs(Shakubuku song "I've been working on the railroad")(see p.241-248).

Hurst, Jane
1998 Nichiren Shoshu and Soka Gakkai in America: The Pioneer Spirit. In The Faces of Buddhism in America p.79-97. Edited by Charles K. Prebish and Kenneth Tanaka. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Metraux, Daniel A.
1994 The Soka Gakkai Revolution. New York: University Press of America
Describes international activities, teachings, rituals, politics, education and recent schism of SG in Japan and abroad. SG in the US is described in p.241-245. Segments of life histories are provided. Author comments that major motive for SG member commitment is "emotive".

Yutaka Yamada
1989 "Acculturation Processes of Japanese New Religions in Australia: Comparison of the Buddhist Society of New South Wales and Nichiren Shoshu of Australia". In Conflict and Cooperation between Contemporary Religions p.59-81.International Symposium Proceedings by Chuo Academic Research Institute. Edited by Chuo Gakujutsu Kenkyusho. Tokyo, Japan: Kosei Shuppann.

See Seager(1999) Chapter 6 "Soka Gakkai and Its Nichiren Humanism" (p.70-89)

N2 Issei and Nisei are examples of Bicultural persons. Bicultural persons are those with significant long term residence/experience in both Japan and the US. In addition to Isseis and New Isseis, Bicultural persons include the following categories of persons:

i)Kibei Nisei A group of second generation Japanese-Americans born to Issei parents but raised in Japan.

ii)Caucasian-American and African-American servicemen. Some of the former are founders of American Zen.

For information on Bicultural persons(e.g. Senso Hanayome) email slametan@aol.com.

N3 Life History and Rituals
Life histories depict multiple turning points in each individual life. Symbolic events described in life histories such as dreams and healing experiences provide "meaning" to these turning points.

This multivocality serves contradictory "functions". Different interpretations can cause schisms and division but can also "unite" since it allows for a diverse range of meanings.

N4 In addition to Issei and Kibei Nisei, Japanese-Americans include the second generation Nisei (those that are born to Issei parents and raised in the United States) and the third generation Sansei.

N5 See Fields (1992).